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PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 



In the present edition the record of events is brought down from 
the close of 1882, where it ceased in the original publication (1884), 
to the [close of 1910. Between 1882 and 1904 this continuation is 
mainly the k of Mr. David M. Matteson, to whom the editor is 
likewise In ed for the general supervision of the issue of 1905. At- 
tention is called to the cross references which now connect the vari- 
ous divisions of national history. 

The editor heartily thanks those readers who have notified him of 
errors in the book. All discovered errors have now been corrected, 
and it is hoped that any which have escaped detection will be made 
mown by whoever may find them. 

January, 1911. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



#*# Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked with 
a f have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. 

PAGB 

Introduction. ix 

t Divisions of universal history 1 

I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. EASTERN PEOPLES. 
Hamitic. 

1. Egyptians 2 

Semitic. 

2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... . 7 

3. Babylonians and Assyrians 12 

4. Phoenicians and Carthaginians 16 

5. Lydians. * Phrygians 20 

Aryan. 

t 6. Indians 22 

7. Bactrians, Medes, Persians 24 

Turanian. 

* 8. Parthians 29 

* 9. Chinese 30 

* 10. Japanese 32 

B. WESTERN PEOPLES. 
Aryans. 

* 1. Celts 34 

a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34 

b. Celts of the British Isles 36 

Britain . . 36 

Ireland 38 

2. Grecian history 39 

Geographical survey of ancient Greece 39 

* Religion of the Greeks 41 

First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period . . . .43 

Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian 

Wars 47 

Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Chseronea . . 56 
Fourth Period (338-146). Graeeo - Macedonian or Hellenistic 

Period . 73 



iv Table of Contents. 



PAGE 

3. Roman history 81 

Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 

* Religion of the ancient Romans 84 

Ethnographical sketch of Itafy 85 

First Period (x— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 

Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 

Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 
Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 
Fifth Period (31 b. c-476 a. d.). The Roman emperors to the 

fall of the Western Empire 147 

* 4. Teutons 162 

* 5. Slavs and Lithuanians 168 

II. MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 

FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 

1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes . . . . . . 170 

* 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 176 

3. The Franks under the Merovingians 181 

4. Mohammed and the Caliphate . . . . . . 182 

5. The Franks under the Carolingians . . . . . .183 

* 6. New Persian empire of the Sassanidsa 187 

SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 

1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- 
perors) 193 

t 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 201 

t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 203 

* 4. The North. Denmark 207 

Sweden, Norway 208 

5. Spanish Peninsula 209 

6. The East. Eastern Empire 210 

* India 210 

* China 211 

* Japan 212 

THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 

1. Crusades 213 

2. Germany and Italy 218 

f 3. France 226 

t 4. England 229 

* 5. The North. Denmark 235 

Sweden 237 

Norway 238 

6. Spanish Peninsula 240 

7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols 240 

* India. * China 241 

* Japan 248 



Table of Contents, v 

PAGE 

FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 

1. Germany to Maximilian I , 244 

Origin of the Swiss Confederacy 245 

Leagues of the cities 249 

t 2. France to Charles VIH 254 

3. Italy 262 

| 4. England to Henry VH 263 

5. Spanish Peninsula 275 

6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia . . . .276 

Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 
Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) 

* China. * Japan J ' ° 278 

III. MODERN HISTORY. 

FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 

1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 

* 2. America. Discovery 280 

a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 

Plymouth Company .... 293 

b. Dutch colonies 298 

c. Swedish colonies 298 

d. New France and the Arctic region 299 

3. Germany to the Thirty Years' "War. Reformation . . 300 

4. Thirty Years' "War 308 

1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 

2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 

3. Swedish " 1630-1635 311 

4. French " 1635-1648 314 

f 5. France 318 

6. Italy 326 

7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands .... 328 

t The Netherlands 328 

* 8. England and Scotland 333 

9. The North and East 351 

Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . . . 352 

Turks. * India 353 

* China . • 354 

* Japan 355 

SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) 

A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

* 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 

French settlements and discoveries .... 363 

t 2. France under Louis XIV 365 

3. Germany under Leopold 1 371 

4. The North and East. Sweden . 373 

Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 



vi . Table of Contents. 



PAGS 

* 5. England 375 

* 6. India 389 

* 7. China 390 

B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

1. The War of the Spanish Succession 390 

2. The Northern War 394 

3. Germany to the devolution of 1789 397 

4. The North. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 

Russia, Poland 410 

5. Spain and Portugal 414 

6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, "Venice 415 

(Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 

* 7. America. British colonies . . 417 

War of Independence 426 

* 8. Great Britain 433 

* 9. The East. India 442 

The British in India 443 

China 444 

Japan 445 

f 10. France to the Hevolution of 1789 445 

THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) 

First French Bevolution and Napoleonic Wars . . . 447 

Causes of the Revolution . . 448 

Constituent assembly . . 449 

Legislative assembly . . . 451 

War of the First Coalition. National Convention . . . 452 

Directory 457 

War of the Second Coalition 460 

The Consulate 461 

First French Empire 465 

War of the Third Coalition 467 

(Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 

Peninsula War 471 

(Fifth) War with Austria 471 

(Sixth) War with Russia . . ..... .474 

The War of Liberation 475 

Congress of Vienna 482 

The Hundred Days (War of 1815) ...... 483 

FOURTH PERIOD. (1815-x.) 

1. Inventions. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- 

graph 485 

2. Continental Europe 487 

War of Grecian Independence ..*.... 488 

Revolution in Belgium 489 

Revolution in Poland . 490 

Revolt of Mehemet Ali . . . ..... 491 



Table of Contents. vii 

PAGE 

Civil war in Switzerland 492 

Confusion in German)'; attempts at union .... 492 

Revolt of the Hungarians 494 

Crimean War 499 

Kingdom of Italy 503 

War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 

Austro-Prussian War 507 

Austro-Italian War 510 

North German Confederation 511 

Franco-German War 513 

German Empire 519 

Turco-Russian War 522 

Congress of Berlin 524 

t 3. Prance (1815-1882) 526 

July Revolution of 1830 529 

February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic . . . §30 

Second Empire 531 

Third Republic 532 

* 4. Great Britain 1(1783-1882) 535 

The British in India (1785-1836) 541 

Great Britain (1837-1882) 542 

The British in India (1836-1882) 546 

* 5. The United States of America 1 (1789-1883) . . . .547 

War of 1812 551 

War with Mexico 554 

The Civil War 557 

* 6. China (1796-1882) 560 

* 7. Japan (1787-1882) 562 

Restoration of the Mikado 563 

APPENDIX. (1883— x.) 

* 8. Great Britain 2 (1883-1903) 565 

South African War 570 

* 9. Continental Europe 2 (1883-1903) '573 

Armenian Massacres 579 

Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek War 58i 

Dreyfus Affair 582 

* 10. United States 2 (1883-1903) 586 

Spanish War ; 599 

Philippine Insurrection 592 

* 11 Asia 2 (1883-1903) ; 594 

Chinese-Japanese War 595 

Boxer Rising 597 

Russo-Japanese Crisis 599 

Leading Events (1904-1908) . 599 

* Index 601 

1 Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. 
a Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran 
teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high 
reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than 
the " Epitome of Universal History." 1 The admitted excellence of 
the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an 
extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose 
of the work may not be out of place. 

"The present 'Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged 
and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use by the upper classes in 
higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook in the historical class- 
room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- 
tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- 
tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the 
memory. 

" I have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- 
ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. 

" The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, 
Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. 

"Mediaeval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier 
editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, 
moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number of 
genealogical tables. 

" In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial 
prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which 
alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system 
of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. 

"Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose 
and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed 
narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- 
ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a 
religious or a political sense. 

" All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out 
the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them 
from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a 
basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- 
ment and extent of such a work. 

" The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- 
structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, 
holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of 
an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 

1 Auszug aus der alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte von Karl Ploetz. 
Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. 
The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author of 
Geschichte der Karthager, i. 1880. 



x Introduction. 

some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in the 
hands of the pupils in the class-room. 

" I am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in 
the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- 
ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to 
the instructor." 

The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the 
hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial 
■Value in this country. 

Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the 
ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but 
believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can 
hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak 
guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- 
factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent 
groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a 
wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the 
best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us 
with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- 
ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, 
each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, 
is dangerous if taken for knowledge. 1 

The speculations in regard to the early inhabitants of the British 
Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- 
ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. 

The mythical history of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has 
been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The 
undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part 
which they play in general literature will explain the presence of 
even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a 
theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy history 
has been kept constantly in view. 

The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- 
sia under the Sassanidae, which the stricter limits of the German 
work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of 
India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the 
meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- 
tion. 

The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 

1 "We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a 
fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain 
from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- 
nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so 
often taken for granted. It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, 
but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or 
not the future will succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen ; 
until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use 
of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Graeeo-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- 
man." (B. Delbriick, Einleitung in das Sprachstudium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf 
& H artel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, — upon what 
point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say 
upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of consid- 
eration. 



Introduction. xi 

land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the 
beginning with a fullness of detail proportional to that observed by 
the original in the history of Germany. 

In the additions nothing more than a compilation from reliable, 
but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes have 
been inserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of the 
original, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla- 
tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed of 
sufficient importance. 

Absolute accuracy cannot be looked for in a work dealing with so 
vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the 
translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has 
endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- 
ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform 
him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- 
served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open 
to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to 
the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book 
to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening 
its completion. 

Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian 
wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, 
no attempt has been made to condense the original. 

Various circumstances have delayed the appearance of the book 
much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last 
ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward Channing, of Harvard 
College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections 
which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 
1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The 
thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of 
Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been 
made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin 
Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. 

To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- 
delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use 
certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful 
" Outlines of History." * 

The distinguishing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement 
whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- 
graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- 
out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has 
been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark 
and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and 
also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the 
use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although 
the manner of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 

1 Labberton, R. H., Outlines of History, with original tables, chronological, 
genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & 
Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. The tables used are II., III., XVI., 
Which appear on pages 265, 256, 332, of the present work. 



xii Introduction. 

respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been 
made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical 
dictionary, as well as a chronology. 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. 

X b. c. — 375 a. d. I. Ancient history, from the begin- 
ning of historical information to the commence- 
ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 

375 — 1492. II. Mediaeval history, from the commence- 
ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to 
the discovery of America. 
1492 — X. III. Modern history, from the discovery of 
America to the present time. 



Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- 
sions : 

A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, As- 

syrians, Phoenicians, Lydians {Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- 
trians, Medes, Persians {Aryan) ; Parthians, Chinese, 
Japanese (Turanian?). 

B. Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons 

(Aryan). 

Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 
375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the 
Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 
843-1096. - 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the beginning of the 
Crusades. 
1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 

1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of 
America. 

Modern history can also be divided into four periods: 

1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of 

Westphalia. 
1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of Westphalia to the outbreak of 

the first French Revolution. 
1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of the first French Revolution 

to the Congress of Vienna. 
1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. 



Ancient History. b. c. 



I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 



A. EASTERN PEOPLES. 

§1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. 

Geography : Egypt a {Kent, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) 
is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low 
hills for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. 
It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thebes or Dios- 
polis, called by Homer e/caT^inri/Aos, the " hundred gated," a designa- 
tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since 
the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lower Egypt (Memphis; 
in the Delta, Tanis, Bubastis, Naucratis, Sals ; west of the Delta, 
Canopus, now Aboukir; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- 
ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). 
These divisions were originally, in all probability, independent coun- 
tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate principali- 
ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- 
memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, 
" lords of the upper and lower country," " lords of the two 
crowns." 

Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical 
animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the 
highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred 
bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra, 2 wor- 
shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting 
and preserving power of the godhead embodied in the sun. Khem, 
was the god of generation and growth. Reverence was also paid to 
the goddess Neith, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks 
to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at 
Bubastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the 
Nile. 

At Thebes, cult of Amnion (Amun), the god of heaven, later united 
with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid 
to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or 
Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and 
double horns, and later becoming united with Ammon to form one 
divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. "mother"). The educated 
classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the 
one Divinity. 

1 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 

2 According to Rosellini and Lopsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from 
this name, and means Son of the Sun. Ebers and Brugsch derive it from 
Pe-ra(o), the " great house." (Compare " Sublime Porte.") 



B. C. Egyptians. 3 

Myth of Osiris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and 
thrown into the sea by Set (Typhon), the destructive force in Nature 
(especially drought) ; sought after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the 
earth), he was avenged by their son Horos, who slew Set- restored to 
life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- 
rection of the creative force in nature; immortality of the soul). Con- 
joined with Horos, the goddess Hathor, considered by the Greeks to be 
the same as Aphrodite. 

Highly developed moral code. 

Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the 
regular overflow of the Nile, beginning at the end of July and last- 
ing four months. 

Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- 
wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which 
represented the language of daily life, the dialect of the common 
people. 

Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) 

Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of 
foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious 
prescriptions. 

Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. 
These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one 
another. 

Form of Government: Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, 
also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of 
the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never 
controlled the supreme power. 1 

The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty 
still exist. 2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and 
still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at 
Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are 
cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to 
the sun-god Raj the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. 

Chronology: The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the 
first of the historic line of kings, by the assumption of three dynas- 
ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of 
kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 
250 b. a), in his history of Egypt. He arranged them in thirty dy- 
nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and 
dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a 
difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties 
of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in different parts 
of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate his son with 
himself during the latter part of his reign, and that the son after- 
wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence 
the systems of chronology, drawn up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. 
There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- 
cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 

1 See Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 180. 

2 Lepsius saw traces and remains of sixty-seven p3 r ramius; Brugsch. of 
jnore than seventy. 



4 Ancient History. b. c. 

5702 (Boeckh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- 
cated in England, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary between 
2700 and 2440. In the following pages the chronology of Lepsius 
is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, which 
Lepsius gives as 3892 b. c. These dates should be compared with the 
lists given by Brugsch l and by Rawlinson. 2 Before 

3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- 
ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition 
by Mena 3 (Menes). Capital : Memphis. 

2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according 

to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of 

the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the 

" Pyramid dynasty." 

About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to 

Thebes. 

Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- 

hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the poAver of Egypt 

up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who 

continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- 

nemhat II.; Usurtasen II.; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 

2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. "lake of inundations "), a large 

reservoir for regulating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of 

this lake the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for ceremonial acts 

and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of 

Thebes). 

About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hy ksos, or Shepherd Kings. 
The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, and Schasu, shepherds, 
contracted into Sos) were wandering tribes of Semitic descent. 
About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native 
rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long 
contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- 
pletely under King Aahmes (Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659). 5 
Their epoch covers the XIHth to XVIIth dynasties. 

1670 — '525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), 
under Thutmes III. {Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth 
dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 

1524-1488. Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- 
hotep III. (Amenophis), successful expeditions against the 
Syrians (Ruthen) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 

1 History of Egypt. Appendix. See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 

2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 

3 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their 
chronology. I have given first some form of the true Egyptian name, as found 
on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brugsch, and have followed it by 
the more common name, as given by Manetho, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- 
tures, in parentheses. [Trans.] 

4 Called by the Greeks Mmris (Motpos, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inter- 
preted as a royal name. 

5 Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. 



B. c. Egyptians. 5 

Erection of magnificent palaces and temples at Thebes. 
(Ruins near the present villages of Carnac, Luxor, and Medi- 
net-Abu; near the latter two sitting colossi, statues of Amen- 
hotep, one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of 
Memnon.) 
1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti I. (Sethos). 
Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. Tem- 
ple of Amnion on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes, 
His son, 

1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great (Sestu-Ra, Ramses) f 
was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could 
not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXth dy- 
nasty). 

In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- 
tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 
110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-58), and to whom they ascribed 
fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to 
have had its origin in the bombastic expressions common to the royal 
inscriptions of the Egyptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earlier 
victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- 
lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenhotep, of Seti and 
Ramessu III. 

During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. 
Splendid palace known as " the House of Ramses," south of Carnac; 
temple of Amnion, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal 
between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the 
oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 
1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- 
dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8). 1 

1269-1244. Ramessu III. (Rhampsinitus, XXth dynasty). 

Successful resistance offered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes ; 

expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft 

from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 
1244-1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name 

of Ramses. 
1091. A new dynasty (XXI.) came to the throne with King Hirhor 

(Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, in the Delta, 

whence they are called Tanites. 

Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of Na- 

pata or Meroe was founded. 
961-940. Shashang I. (Sesonchis, Shisah), from Bubastis, founded a 

new dynasty (XXII.). 2 He undertook (949) a successful ex- 
pedition against Judoea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 

1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name ; the date of 
whose reign, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, would 
have to be placed several decades earlier, in agreement with Duncker and 
Maspero. 

2 The opinion of Brugsch, History of Egypt, II. 198, that an Assyrian con- 
quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Shashang I. was the son of the 
conqueror, Nimrod, king of Assyria, has not found favor among Egyptologists. 
[Trans.] 



6 Ancient History. B. c. 

730. The Ethiopians, under Shdbak (Sabako), conquered Egypt, 
which they governed for fifty-eight years under three succes- 
sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 

672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddon (p. 15) 
against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshur- 
banipal (Sardanapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- 
opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of 
Shabak), and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty 
governors, most of whom were natives. 

653. One of these governors, Psamethik, in alliance with 
Gyges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- 
cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, 
and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sa'is). 
The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- 
otus and Diodorus), according to which Psammeticus defeated his 
eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is 
derived from the twelve courts of columns in the Labyrinth, which, 
according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, 
whereas this gigantic building had already been standing 1500 years 
(p. 4). 

653-610. Psamethik L, king of Egypt, from the mouths 
of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- 
pians held the supremacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) 

New capital, Sa'is, in the Delta, where Psamethik built a magnifi- 
cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored in the 
army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek 
factory at Naucratis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste ; emi- 
grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. 

Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine; they 
were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his 
frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. 
These wars led to no lasting conquests. The son of Psamethik, 

610-595. Neku (Necho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite 
the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in 
carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by 
Phoenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where 
he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judah in the 
battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the 
Babylonians in the 

605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. 
Neku's son, 

595-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- 
cess. His son, 

589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lasting success against 
Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against 
Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated 
at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and 
strangled. 



b. c. Jews. 7 

570-526. Aahmes (Amasis), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended 
the throne. Encouragement of foreigners, especially of the 
Greeks, carried still farther; numerous Grecian temples erected 
in Naucratis. Friendship with Cyrene and Poly crates of Samos. 
Magnificent buildings, especially in Sa'is. The son of Amasis, 

525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Pelusium 
by Cambyses. Egypt a Persian province. 

§ 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Semitic. 

Geography. The land of the Jews is bounded N. by Codo-Syria; 
W. by Phoenicia, the Mediterranean, and the land of the Philistines; 
S. by Arabia Petrcea; E. by the Arabian Desert. 

The name Canaan, 1 i. e. " low land," was originally applied to the 
region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland 
country. 

The names Canaanite and Phoenician have properly the same mean- 
ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the 
inhabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. 

Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, which 
was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines (Pelishtim) 
which had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and 
Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country- 
is called " the promised land," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to 
the children of Israel. 

The river Jordan, which rises in the mountain range of Antilebanon 
and empties into the Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah), runs through the 
middle of the country. After the Jewish conquest the country was 
divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes; after the death 
of Solomon into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; at the time of 
Christ into four districts: 1. Judeea {Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushala'im; 
Greek 'Upo<r6\v/j.a } with the fortress of Zion and the Temple on Mt. 
Moriah; Bethlehem, Jericho, Joppa, now Jaffa, on the coast) ; 2. Sama- 
ria {Samaria, Sichem); 3. Galilsea (Nazareth, Capernaum on the sea 
of Tiberias or Genezareth, Cand) ; east from Jordan 4. Peraea. 

In the country of the Philistines, the coast region between Pales- 
tine and Egypt: Ashdod, Ascalon, Gaza, Ekron, Gath. 

Chronology. 2 As is the case with the earliest history of all na- 
tions, the chronology of Jewish history is uncertain. There is a long 
and a short system, but here the short system found favor on the con- 
tinent, while the long system prevails in England. 

2000 (?). Abraham (Abram), Patriarch of the Hebrews 
(i. e. "those from the other side," because they immi- 
grated from TJr in Babylonia) , Israelites, or Jews. 

According to the traditions of the Hebrews, Abraham had two sons: 
Tshmael by Hagar, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Arabians) ; and 
[setae, by his lawful wife Sarah. The son of Isaac by Rebekah, Jacob 

1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas antiquus, Tab. III. 

2 Cf. Duncker, History of Antiquity, II. 112, note. 



8 Ancient History. b. c. 

or Israel, the true tribal ancestor of the Hebrews. Jacob's twelve 
sons : by Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon: by 
Rachel — Joseph, Benjamin- by Bilhah — Dan, Naphtalij by Zilpah — 
Gad, Asher. 

1550 (?). Joseph. The tribe of the Hebrews migrated to 
Egypt. They settled in the land of Goshen, on the right 
bank of the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. It is claimed that 
the master of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd kings 
of Egypt (see p. 4, where the chronology does not agree 
with the theory, which, however, is no objection, as it could be 
easily made to conform.) 

1320 C?)- 1 Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt. 
Ten commandments at Mt. Sinai. The laws of 
Moses. 

About 1250. The Israelites (Joshua) after a long nomadic life in the 
peninsula of Sinai and on the east of Jordan conquered the 
Promised Land, but without entirely subjugating the former 
inhabitants. 

Theocracy, i. e. the nation was under the immediate guidance of 
Jehovah. The office of the high priest was hereditary in the family 
of Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Tabernacle, a portable temple 
or holy tent. The Ark of the Covenant. To the family of Levi (son of 
Jacob-Israel) was given the exclusive care and service of the taber- 
nacle and all things used in the religious ceremonial. 

The other twelve tribes (named from ten sons of Jacob (see above) 
and two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh) settled in separate 
districts, which were more or less cut off from one another by remnants 
of the former inhabitants, and formed an exceedingly loose union of 
twelve small states under tribal chiefs, which was at times hard 
pressed by neighboring tribes. 

Judges (Shofetim) : men raised up by Jehovah in times of need, 
especially military leaders in the wars against the Canaanite tribes: 
Amorites (of whom the Jebusites were a part), Amalekites, Hittites- 
Hivites, and against the Philistines, Midianites, Ammonites, Moabites. 
Judges : Ehud ; the heroine Deborah; Gideon, conqueror of the Mid- 
ianites; Jephthah, conqueror of the Ammonites; Samson, the terror 
of the Philistines. 

1070. The Philistines subjugated the whole country this side Jor- 
dan. 

At the demand of the people, Samuel, the last " Judge in Israel,'' 
anointed a brave man of the tribe of Benjamin, 

1055 (?)• Saul, as king of the Jews. 

Victory of Saul over the Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, and Amalek- 
ites. Samuel, being at variance with Saul, anointed David, from the 
tribe of Judah, as king, at the command of Jehovah. David fled to 
the Philistines from the persecution of Saul. Saul defeated by the 
Philistines, put an end to his life (1033 ?). For seven years David 

l English scholars place the Exodus at 1652 or 1491. 



3. c. Jews. 9 

was recognized as king by the tribe of Judah only, the other tribes 
under the influence of the captain, Abner, adhering to Saul's son, Ish- 
bosheth. After the murder of Abner and Ish-bosheth, all the tribes 
acknowledged David as king in the assembly at Hebron. 

1025 (?)• David. Kingdom of the Jews at the highest point 
of its power. David wrested Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and 
made it his residence. He restrained the Philistines within 
their own borders. His sway extended from the N.E. end of 
the Red Sea to Damascus. Erection of a royal palace at Zion. 
Ark of the Covenant placed in Jerusalem. Organization of 
the army. Religious poetry of the Hebrews at the height of 
its development. The Psalms. Revolt and death of Absalom 
(Ahithophel). David passed over his son Adonijah, by Hag- 
gith, and other sons, and appointed his son by Bathsheba his 
successor. 

993 (?)• Solomon. Erection of the Temple of Jehovah and 
a new palace in Jerusalem, with the aid of workmen from 
Tyre. Magnificent court. Standing army. Extensive com- 
merce. Defection of Damascus. Foundation of Tadmor in 
an oasis of the Syrian desert. At the close of Solomon's reign, 
toleration of foreign idolatry in Jerusalem. After the death 
of Solomon, 

953 (?), Division of the kingdom of the Jews. 1 

The tribe of Judah, the tribe of Simeon, which had become united 
with Judah, and a part of Benjamin with the Levites, remained true to 
Rehoboam the son of Solomon, and formed the Kingdom cf Judah 
(capital, Jerusalem); the other tribes, under Jeroboam, formed the 
Kingdom of Israel farther north (capital at first Sichem, still later 
Samaria and Jezreel). These two kingdoms were frequently at war 
with one another. 

Kingdom of Israel. 

After the death of the energetic Jeroboam (953-927), his son Na- 
dab was murdered by the captain Baasha, who ascended the throne 
(925). His son and successor Elah was slain by Zimri; Tibni and 
Omri disputed the throne, but Omri prevailed in the end (899). The 
son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, whereby the 
practice of Phoenician idolatry (Baal and Astarte) was extended in 
Israel. 

Contest of the Prophets (Elijah, Elisha, etc.) with the idola- 
trous monarchy. Israel and Judah united for a short time. Ahab's 
son Ahaziah (853-851). The captain Jehu, anointed king by Elisha, 
slew the brother of Ahaziah, Joram (851-843), and put to death 
Jezebel and seventy sons and grandsons of Ahab. Jehu (843-815) 
destroyed the temple of Baal and put to death the priests of that god. 
Decline of Israel's power, which was only temporarily revived by the 

1 About the chronology, cf. Duncker, II. 234, not*. The long system 
Sixes 975 b. c. 



10 Ancient History. B. C. 

fourth king of the line of Jehu, Jeroboam II. (790-749). After the 
fall of the house of Jehu, the kingdom of Israel became tributary to 
the Assyrians. Tiglath-Pileser conquered the northeastern part of 
the kingdom. Hoshea, the last king of Israel (734), tried to free his 
country from the Assyrian yoke, but was defeated and captured by 
Shalmaneser IV. After a three years' siege, 

722. 1 Samaria was captured by Sargon, king of the Assyr- 
ians, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and a 
part of the people carried away and settled in Assyria 
and Media. 

Kingdom of Judah. 

In the reign of Rehoboam the country was overrun by the Egyptians 
under the Pharaoh Shashang (Shishak). 

Sack of Jerusalem (949). Rehoboam's grandson Asa (929-873) 
abolished idolatry, which was prohibited by the law. He was compelled 
to buy assistance from the king of Damascus against Baasha of Israel. 
Energetic reign of his son Jehoshaphat (873-848). In the hope of put- 
ting an end to the war with the Kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat mar- 
ried his son Jehoram (848-844) to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of 
Israel and Jezebel. After the son of Athaliah, Ahaziah, was murdered 
while on a visit to the king of Israel, together with the whole royal 
family of the Kingdom of Israel as above described (p. 9), Athaliah 
(843-837) seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, put to death her 
own grandchildren in order to destroy the tribe of David, Joash alone 
being miraculously rescued and brought up in the Temple of Jehovah, 
and introduced the worship of Baal in Jerusalem. Athaliah was over- 
thrown and put to death by the high priest Jehoiada, and the young 
Joash raised to the throne. The worship of Baal was abolished. 

Joash (837-797) was obliged to purchase the retreat of the army 
from Damascus which was besieging Jerusalem. Murder of Joash. 
Under his son Amaziah (797-792) Jerusalem was captured by the 
Israelites; the Temple and palace plundered. Amaziah was murdered; 
but his son Uzziah {Azariah, 792-740) successfully resisted the mur- 
derers and raised the kingdom again to a position of power and au- 
thority. The Prophet Isaiah. 

Under the successors of Amaziah, the Kingdom of Judah, hard 
pressed by the Kingdom of Israel and by Damascus, became tributary 
to the Assyrians. King Hezekiah (728-697) again abolished idolatry, 
refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, and allied himself with the 
Egyptians. The Assyrians under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 
vain, but carried off many of the inhabitants of the open country into 
captivity. Hezekiah's son Manasseh (697-642) transformed the Tem- 
ple of Jehovah into a temple of Astarte, and sacrificed to Baal and 
Moloch in spite of the opposition of the prophets ; he submitted again 
to the Assyrians, was carried captive to Babylon, but in the end re- 

1 In the date 722, the Hebrew chronology agrees with that of the Assyrian 
monuments. Cf. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften u. das alte Testament, 1872, 
1882, and Menant, Annates des Rais d'Assyrie. 1874. 



0. c.-a. d. Jews. 11 

stored to his throne. Under his grandson Josiah (640-609), the coun- 
try was ravaged by Scythians. 

Religious reaction against idolatry (Jeremiah). Reformation of 
the worship of Jehovah, according to the book of the law of Moses 
which was rediscovered in the Temple (622). King Josiah fell in the 
battle of Megiddo (609) against the Egyptian king Necho (Neku). 

The Kingdom of Judah subject to the Egyptians, and, after the de- 
feat of Necho at Carchemish (605), to the Babylonians. Jehoiakim en- 
deavored to revolt, but was put to death. His son, Jehoiachin, was 
carried into captivity with many of his subjects by the Babylonians 
(597). An attempt on the part of the last king, Zedekiah, to regain 
independence was unsuccessful in spite of Egyptian assistance. Jeru- 
salem was besieged (588-586) ; an Egyptian army advancing to its 
relief was defeated and compelled to retreat. 

586. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusa- 
lem. Destruction of the city and burning of the Temple. 
Many of the Jews were slain ; those who were left were 
carried into the Babylonian captivity. (The prophet 
Ezekiel.) 

537. The Jews sent back to Palestine by Cyrus. Rebuilding of the 
Temple (Zerubbabel), which was not completed, however, un- 
til the time of Darius I. (516). The Jews subject at first to 
the Persians (538-332), then to Alexander the Great (332-323), 
afterwards to the Ptolemies (323-198), finally to the Seleu- 
cid kings of Syria (198-167). 

167-130. Emancipation of the Jews by the Maccabees, or 
Asmonseans, after a struggle lasting nearly fourteen 
years. Leaders: the priest Mattathias, and his five 
sons, especially Judas Maccabseus. 

A great-grandson of Mattathias, Aristobulus, assumed the title of 
king (105). Under his successors, strife between the Pharisees and 
Sadducees. 

63. Pompeius, called in to help the Pharisees, made the Jews tribu- 
tary to the Romans. 
40. Herod (the Great), son of the Idumsean Antipater, recognized by 
the Roman Senate as dependent king of Judoza. 

Birth of Christ (four years before the beginning of our 
era?). 

6 A. d. After a short reign of the three sons of Herod, Judaea be- 
came a part of the Roman Province of Syria. (Two Te- 
trarchies, however, remained independent: Galiloza, until 32 
A. d. ; Peroza, until 33 a. d.) 

41-44. , Judaea again a dependent kingdom under Herod Agrippa I., 
a grandson of Herod the Great; then a Roman province again. 
Agrippa II. was made king over a small portion in dependence 
on Rome. 

66. Revolt of the Jews against the Roman supremacy, ending in the 



12 Ancient History, a. o. 

70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 

A large part of the Jews assembled in Jerusalem for the observance 
of the passover perished by starvation and the Roman sword ; many 
thousands were taken captive to Rome. (The historian Josephus.) 
132-135. Another uprisal of the Jews, under Hadrian, on account 
of the foundation of the colony, JElia Capitolina, on the site of 
Jerusalem, wherein more than half a million perished. Dis- 
persal of a great part of the survivors; nevertheless a consid- 
erable number remained in Palestine. 

§3. BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS. Semitic. 

Geography : Babylonia, 1 called by the Hebrews Shinar, is the 
country lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and stretching from 
the point where these rivers approach one another, about 350 miles 
from their mouth, to where they empty into the Persian Gulf by sev- 
eral arms, as Pasitigris (now Shatt-el-Arab). In the neighborhood of 
the present village of Hillah stood Babylon (in the Babylonian form, 
Babilu, called by the Hebrews Babel, i. e. gates or dwelling of the 
god Bel), a huge rectangular city, situated, since the time of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, on both banks of the Euphrates, about thirty-four miles in 
circumference (Clitarchus; Herodotus gives about forty-five miles), 
and surrounded by two brick walls of unusual thickness and height. 
The city was large enough to afford a refuge to a great number of the 
inhabitants of the country during incursions of nomadic tribes, and 
contained fields of considerable extent, woods, and gardens. In Baby- 
lon: (a.) The temple of Bel (Tower of Babel), a huge square build- 
ing of brick,- consisting of eight diminishing stories rising in pyramidal 
form. It is said to have been originally 600 feet high. 2 (&.) Two 
Palaces, the one on the east side of the Euphrates having the Hanging 
Gardens, the construction of which is wrongly ascribed to Semiramis, 
and which were terraced pleasure grounds. 

Assyria (Asshur) is bounded on the N. by the highlands of Arme- 
nia, on the E. by the plateau of Iran, on the S. by the Diala, a branch 
of the Tigris, and on the W. by the Tigris itself. The smaller region 
called Assyria by the Greeks lay within this territory, between the 
Tigris and its branch, the Great Zab, which flows into the Tigris below 
the present Mosul. On the Tigris stood Nineveh (Ninua, "the 
Palace," y) NIVos) surrounded with huge walls. The ruins lie opposite 
the present Mosul. Oldest residence of the kings, Asshur; afterwards, 
founded, Calah; founded by Sargon, Dur-Sarrukin (Khorsabad). 

Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The religion of the 
Semitic peoples, with the exception of the Hebrews, was a worship of 
nature, wherein divinity was conceived as the personified force of na- 

1 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 

2 According to Oppert (Exped. Scient. en Mesopotamie) the temple of Bel is 
to be sought in the ruins of Burs-Nimrud (on the site of old Borsippa). Eaw- 
iinson ( The Five Great Monarchies of the East) disputes this, because Borsippa 
was a separate village lying outside the walls of the capital until the reign of 
Nebuchadnezzar, and finds the Tower of Babel in a great quadrangular ruin! 
called Bdbil, by the Arabs, on the east bank of the Euphrates in Babylon. 



B. C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 13 

ture in human form, male and/graaZe. Among the gods of the Baby- 
lonians the oldest was El, among those of the Assyrians, Asshur. The 
third, Bel (Baal), the " Lord of all," appeared as the creative, but 
also the destructive force in Nature. The goddess Belit or Baaltis 
(in Herodotus Mylitta), the queen and mother of the gods, is the 
fruitful and reproductive principle, the goddess of love, fertility, and 
birth. Her opposite is Istar, the goddess of war and destruction. 
Confused with Belit is the goddess who brings alternately life and 
blessing, death and destruction (like the Ashera-Astarte of the Phoe- 
nicians and Carthaginians). In Babylon there was a complicated sys- 
tem of star-worship. 

The Chaldeans, or caste of priests, in Babylon, possessed somo 
astronomical and astrological skill. This name was properly that of 
the Semitic population of Babylonia, but western writers applied it 
chiefly to the priests. 

Civilization. An exact system of weights and measures, which 
was used far outside the borders of Babylonia. Cuneiform writing, 
a system of characters formed by the gradual abbreviation of hiero- 
glyphics. Magnificent structures of brick. System of canals for the 
irrigation of the country, and for the regulation of the yearly overflow 
of the Tigris and Euphrates. Important manufacturing industries 
and extensive commerce. 

Chronology. An astronomical system and a mythical history 
closely resembling the Biblical account of the creation and deluge 
(epic of Izdhuber). The inscriptions give many names ; but few 
dates are satisfactorily established before 900 b. c. 

4000-731. Old Babylonian (so-called Chaldcean) Em- 
pire. 

4000-3000. Civilization, originating, perhaps, in a non- Semitic people 
(Sumir and Accadf), was adopted, with the cuneiform writing, 

by a Semitic people, who came, probably, from the S. Independent, 

hostile cities : Ur, ErecTi, Larsam; Agade (Accad ?), Babylon. Sar- 

gon, 3800, reached the Mediterranean, Hammurabi united Babylonia. 1 

2300-2076. Supremacy of Elam (Elymais, Susiana), a non-Semitic 
kingdom E. of Babylonia (the second dynasty of Berosus 2 ). 
KudurnancJiundi ; Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv.). 

About 2000. Babylonia, after 300 years, again independent. 

About 1900. Assyria settled by emigrants from Babylonia (Nim- 
rod ?). 

1525-1257. Cassite kings of Babylonia (the Arabians of Berosus). 

1500-710. Constant wars with Assyria. Final subjugation of 
Babylonia after the revolts of Merodach-Baladan. 

1 Hammurabi's code of laws (about 2200 b. c.) was lately discovered. 

2 Berosus, at the time of Alexander, compiled from Babvlonian records a 
history in which he mentioned the following dynasties (dates from Delitzsch). 
Ante-diluvian, ten kings, 432,000 years. Post-diluvian: I. Eighty-six kings, 
33,091 years. II. Right Median tyrants, 224 years (2300-2076). III. Eleven 
kings. IV. Forty-nine Chaldcean kings, 458 years (1983-1525). V. Nine Ara- 
bian kings, 245 years (1525-1257). VI. Forty-five kings, 526 years (1257-731). 



14 Ancient History. B. c 

1900-608 (605). Assyrian Empire (p. 12). 

Colonized, probably, from Babylonia (Gen. x.), Assyria grad- 
ually grew into a powerful rival of the mother-state. The chronol- 
ogy falls into five periods. 1 I. 1900-1500. II. 1500-1300. Wars 
with Babylonia, ending in Babylonian overlordship. III. 1220-930. 
Assyria again independent. IV. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch. 
V. 626 (?)-608 (605). Fall of the empire. 

1900-930. Of the first three periods little is known. Tiglath-Adar I., 
about 1310, conquered Babylonia, but Assyria was soon subju- 
gated. Tiglath-Pileser I., 1115-1105, conquered from Bagdad and 
Babylon to the Mediterranean. 

930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch of Assyrian history. The inscrip- 
tions become frequent, full, and exact. It was a time of ex- 
pansion, conquest, and great activity in architecture, sculpture, and 
literature. Among the kings may be mentioned : 
886-858. Asshur-natzir-pal. 2 (Sardanapalus) . Military expedi- 
tions to Zagros, Armenia, Babylonia, Syria. Erection of a 
palace at Calah. His son, 
858-823. Shalmaneser II., fought with Ahab in Syria and subju- 
gated Jehu. 
810-781. Ramannirari captured Damascus and made Samaria and 
Philistia tributary. His wife Sammuramit (Semiramis). 
A tradition of later growth reported by the Greeks {Diodorus on 
the authority of Ctesias) connects the establishment of the Assyrian 
supremacy over almost the whole of western Asia, the building of 
Nineveh and Babylon, with the names of the king Ninus and his con- 
sort Semiramis. Both Ninus (son of the god Bel) and Semiramis 
(daughter of the goddess Mylitta) are mythical creations, into whose 
reigns tradition has condensed the deeds of a long series of warlike 
rulers, so that no achievements were left for their successors, and these 
from Ninyas down appear as effeminate weaklings. Ninus is unknown 
to the Assyrian monuments, and Semiramis first appears in the ninth 
century. On the other hand we know that a goddess answering to 
Istar-Belit was worshipped in Syria under the name of Semiramis. 

Medo-Persian bards seem to have changed the divinities Bel and 
Istar-Belit into heroes, and have formed the names Ninus and Ninyas 
from the name of the city Ninua (Nineveh). 8 

745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (identical with the king Pul men- 
tioned in the Bible) (see p. 13) made Babylonia, which was at 
that time divided into several states, western Iran, Armenia, 
Syria, Phoenicia, Judah and Israel, subject to Assyria. 
121-122. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phoenician 

cities and the Kingdom of Israel. 
722-705. S argon (Sarrukin) conquered Samaria and destroyed the 
Kingdom of Israel (see p. 10). He received tribute from 
Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus, suppressed revolts in Armenia, 
Media, and Babylonia, and united the latter with Assyria (710) 

\ Delitzsch. 

* Formerly called Asshur-idanni-pal. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies 
II. 246, note' 10. 

3 Duncker, II. 17. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften, etc. ~M.en.sxit, Annales, 
rtc. Lenormant, Lettres Assyrioloc/iques. Smith. Assyrian Discoveries. 



B. C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 15 

Residence : Dur-Sarrukin, now Khorsdbad, not far from Nine- 
veh. His son, 

705-681. Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-irib) retained his hold upon Baby- 
lonia in spite of repeated insurrections, but was unsuccessful in 
his wars with Egypt and Judah, and lost the supremacy over 
Syria. Fleet in the Persian Gulf. Foundation of Tarsus. His 
son, 

681-668. Esarhaddon (Asshur-akh-iddiri) suppressed a new revolt 
of the Babylonians, reconquered Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Ju- 
dah, and a part of Arabia, and in 672 conquered Egypt from 
the Ethiopians, entrusting the government to 20 governors, 
most of whom were natives (see p. 6). 
Assyria at the height of her power. One of his sons was made 

riceroy of Babylonia, the other, 
668-626. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalns), defended Egypt, at 
first with success, against the kings of Ethiopia and native in- 
surrections, but lost it in 653 by the revolt of Psammeticus 
(see p. 6). On the other hand he strengthened the Assyrian 
power in Syria, Arabia, Cilicia, as well as in Babylonia, where 
his brother had revolted, conquered the Kingdom of Elam, and 
received tribute from Lydia. Erection of magnificent palaces. 
Foundation of a library at Nineveh. Highest development of 
Assyrian art. ' About 

640 (650). Revolt of the Medes. Of the Medes little is known 
until they were attacked by the Assyrians about 830 b. <j. 
About 710 their resistance was broken and their country was 
soon subjected to Assyria, and so continued until about 640. 
Phraortes (Fravartis), son of Dejoces (Dahyavka), a petty 
chief among the Medes, revolted but fell in battle. 

633. His son Cyaxares (Uvakhshatara) continued the struggle, 
which was, however, soon interrupted by the 

632. Irruption of Scythian tribes which had wandered 
about western Asia, plundering as they went, as far as the bor- 
ders of Egypt, for 28 years it is said, though 8 is the more prob- 
able number. After Cyaxares had rid the country of them, he 
made another attack on Assyria, which had been much weakened 
by the Scythians. For the purpose of destroying the Assyr- 
ian kingdom, Cyaxares allied himself with the Chaldean Nabo- 
polassar (Nabu-habal-usur), Assyrian governor of Babylon 
since 625, who had made himself independent. Desperate 
struggle with the Assyrian king Sarakos (Asshur-ebil-ili), 
626-608 (625 ?), son of Sardanapalus V. After a long siege, 

608 (605 ?*) Nineveh was taken and destroyed; as the enemy 
broke into the city, Sarakos set fire to the royal palace and 
perished in the flames with his wives and treasurer. End of 
the Kingdom of Assyria. Nabopolassar united with Baby- 

1 The date is doubtful. Herodotus implies a date as late as 608-605. Be- 
rosus (as reported by Abydenus and Polyhistor) gives 625. The former date 
is advocated by Clinton and Duncker {History of Antiq., III. 266-292), 
the latter by G. Rawlinson (Five Great Monarchies, II. 391, note 5), and 
Lenormant {Lettres Assyrioloyiques, I § 12, esp. pp. 84, 85). Delitzsch, 60? 



16 Ancient History. B. c. 

Ionia the whole of northern Mesopotamia on the right bank of 
the Tigris, the rest falling to the share of Cyaxares, 1 who had 
already subjugated Armenia and the Iranian portions of the 
kingdom of Assyria. 
The Grecian story of the effeminate Sardanapalus (Ctesias in Dio- 
dorus, II.) is the counterpart of their tales about the masculine Semi" 
ramis. According to this story, Sardanapalus, on the fall of the city, 
burns himself upon a magnificent bier, 400 feet high, which burns for 
15 days. This story seems to be an application of the myth of the 
god who burned himself and rose from the flames, whom the Semitic 
peoples associated with Istar (Astarte), and whose nature they con- 
founded with hers. 2 

608 (605)-538. (New) Empire of Babylon. After the 
Assyrian conquest of Babylonia, about 710 (see p. 14), the 
latter country continued subject to Assyria, with intervals 
of rebellion, until the successful combination of Nabopolas- 
sar and Cyaxares destroyed the power of Assyria. Babylon 
then took the lead among the nations of the East, rivalled by 
Media alone. 

604-561. Nebuchadnezzar (JSfabu-kudur-ussur), son of Na- 
bopolassar, during the reign of his father defeated Necho, king 
of Egypt, at Carchemisch on the Euphrates (605), conquered 
Syria, destroyed Jerusalem (586), and subdued Tyre (585). 
Enlargement and adornment of Babylon (on the east bank of 
the Euphrates). Construction of a bridge over the Euphrates, 
' and of a new palace, with the " hanging gardens " which tradi- 
tion assigns to Semiramis. Erection of the Median wall from 
the Euphrates to the Tigris. Magnificent water works. The 
reservoir at Sippara (Sepharvaim). After Nebuchadnezzar, 
rapid decline of the dynasty, which became extinct in 555. 

588. Babylon (last king Nabonetus, or Nabunahid, reigning 
in conjunction with his son Bel-shar-ussur, the Biblical 
Belshazzar) taken by Cyrus. Babylon a Persian prov- 
ince. 

§ 4. PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. Semitic. 
(Down to the war of the latter with the Romans.) 

Geography. 3 Phoenicia ($o<.vIktj, Phcenice) is the Grecian name of 
Canaan (see p. 7), and was derived from the tribal name 
$o7vi%. In the narrower sense the name denotes the strip of 
coast, 5-14 miles wide and 150 miles long, which lies N. of the 
country of the Philistines and the Hebrews and W. of Mt. Leb- 
anon. This strip was inhabited by three tribes : 1. Sidonians, 
i. e. " fishers " (cities : Sidon, Zor, called by the Greeks Tyros); 
2. Arvadites (city : Arvad, in Greek Arados); 3. Giblites 
(cities : Byblus or Gebal, and Berytos). 

Religion of the Phoenicians. The god Baal {Bel, of the Babylo* 

1 For the Median Empire, see p. 25. 

2 Duncker, II. chapter i. ; also III. 265. 
8 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 



«. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 17 

uians) and the goddess Ashera (Baaltis, Belit of the Babylo- 
nians), the divinities of life, birth, and the genial forces of na- 
ture, were opposed to the god Moloch (i. e. "king," the 
Babylonian A dar), the devouring and destroying, and yet cleans- 
ing fire, also god of war, and the maiden goddess Astarte. 
Human sacrifices: to Moloch, boys and youths ; to Astarte, 
youths and maidens. Afterwards Baal and Moloch were con- 
fused into one divinity, who, under the name of Melkart (i. e. 
" king of the city " ), became the guardian divinity of Tyre. In 
the same way A shera and Astarte were united into one divinity, 
who when represented as a grim wandering goddess vanishing 
with the changing light of the moon bears the name Dido, but 
when represented as a kind and gentle divinity newly restored 
to the knowledge of mankind that of Anna (i. e. " pleasant "). 
The Political Constitution of the Phoenician cities was an he- 
reditary monarchy, but the royal power was checked by the existence 
of two senates. 

1300. Period of Sidon's greatest power. Favored by the sit- 
uation of their country, and urged by an energetic industry 
which led to the invention or development of many arts and 
manufactures, such as purple dye, weaving, glass-making, min- 
ing, work in metals, and architecture, the Phoenicians estab- 
lished at an early period, certainly not later than 1500, a car- 
rying trade by land (to Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Armenia) 
as well as by sea, which time only made more extensive. 
In close connection with the commerce by sea was the foundation 
of numerous colonies. Thus in Cyprus were founded Citium, Ama- 
thus, Paphos, the centre of the worship of Ashera, whence originated the 
Grecian worship of Aphrodite, that goddess " born of the foam of the 
sea" (i. e. whose cult came to Greece by sea). Other colonies were 
founded in Cicilia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera, as well as on many of the 
islands of the iEgaean sea, and at points along the coast of Greece; 
further west, again, colonies were planted in Melite or Malta, in Sicily 
(on the southern coast Minoa, Gr. Heraklea, on the northern coast 
Solceis (sela — " cliff "), Panormus (Machanath ?), at the western end 
of the island Motye), on Sardinia (Caralis), on the north coast of Af- 
rica (two cities of Leptis, Hadrumetum, Utica, the two towns of Hip- 
po), in the country called Tarsis or Tarshish, i. e. southern Spain, 
beyond the columns of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), Gadir or 
Gades, i. e. " walls," " fortress," now Cadiz, founded about 1100. 

From this point the Phoenicians extended their commercial deal- 
ings still further to the western coasts of Africa, and to the Islands 
of Tin (the Cassiterides), Britain, 1 and the coasts of the German 
Ocean, where they bought amber which the native tribes obtained by 
barter from the Baltic* 

Mythical representations of these voyages and settlements of the 
Phoenicians are contained in a series of well-known Grecian tales. 

1 English antiquarians of the present day consider it probable that the Phoe- 
nicians never set foot e ; ther in the Scilly Isles or in Britain, but received what 
British tin they did obtain, at second or third hand, from the Celts of Gau« 
.'Veneti?). Tin was found in the river beds of western Gaul. [Trans. J 
2 



18 Ancient History. b. c. 

Story of the rape of Europa (i. e. " the grim "), daughter of Phce* 
nix (i. e. " the Phoenician ") from Sidon by Zeus in the form of a bull 
(whereby is denoted the moon-goddess Dido-Astarte, who flees to- 
wards the west). Story of Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, the 
powerful ruler of Crete; his wife is Pasiphae (i. e. " she who shines 
upon all "). Story of the Minotaur (i. e. Bull of Minos, another con- 
ception of Baal-Moloch), shut up in the Labyrinth, to whom Athens 
had to send human offerings. Dcedalus, builder of the Labyrinth in 
Crete, is the personification of that technical dexterity which the Hel- 
lenes acquired from the Phoenicians. 

Cadmus, too, who in search of his sister Europa landed in Thera 
and Thasos, built the Cadmea in Bceotia, and invented the alphabet, 
is the mythical representative of Phoenician settlements from which 
the written alphabet and other elements of eastern civilization were 
carried to the Greeks. 

1100. Tyre, though younger than Sidon, attained the first 
rank among the Phoenician sea-board towns. 

1001-967. Tyre, at the height of its prosperity, under king 
Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon, and the lat- 
ter's friend. Exploring expedition of the Tyrians, accompanied 
by the servants of Solomon, through the Red Sea to the coast 
of India (Ophir). 
Hiram filled in the space between the island upon which stood the 
temple of Melkart, and New Tyre (which was also situated on an 
island), and erected buildings on the new land. He also narrowed 
the strait between New Tyre and Old Tyre on the mam land. 
917 (?). Ethbaal (Ithabalus), high priest of Astarte, murdered Phales, 
the last descendant of Hiram, and made himself king. 
About seventy (?) years later, according to a Grecian authority, a 
grandson of this Ethbaal decreed in his will that his minor son Pyg- 
malion and his daughter Elissa should govern Tyre in common under 
the guardianship of their uncle, the high priest Sicharbaal, who was 
to marry Elissa. The democratic party deprived Elissa of her share 
in the government, and Pygmalion, coming of age, murdered Sichar- 
baal. In consequence of this internal strife, and influenced probably 
by the unfavorable state of the foreign relations (advance of the 
Assyrian power towards the Mediterranean, see p. 15), a large part 
of the older families left Tyre with Elissa. On an excellent site, 
on the north coast of Africa, they founded about 

850. 1 Carthage 2 (in Punic, Kathada, i. e. " the new city "), 
between Utica in the W. and the present cape Bon in the E., 
not far from the present Tunis. Double harbor. Citadel 
Byrsa. Later the foundress, Elissa, became confused with the 
goddess, Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony. 8 

1 According to Timaeus, 814. Concerning the chronologv, see Dunoker, 
II. 270. 

2 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VIII. 

8 The credibility of this narrative and the interpretations put upon it. both as 
jegards the chronology and the facts, are contested by O. Meltzer, Gesch. d 



b. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 19 

Carthage, so far as it comes within the realm of history, appears to 
have been an aristocratic republic, with two Sufetes, or judges, fre- 
quently called " kings," and compared with the Spartan kings, and 
two senates, a large and small. Only upon occasion ,of a disagree- 
ment between these branches of the government were the people 
called upon to give their opinion. The government tended constantly 
toward the oligarchical form. 

850. Decline of the power of the Phoenician cities, especially of 
Tyre, which was distracted by civil dissension. 
The Phoenicians fell repeatedly under the rule of the Assyrians, and, 
for a time, under that of the Egyptians. After the fall of the Assyr- 
ian empire (625, 606), they became dependent upon the Babylonians, 
Tyre alone maintaining its freedom until 573. 

Favored by the political situation, the Greeks, who had already 
(about 1000) driven the Phoenicians out of the iEgean Sea, began to 
extend their influence in the eastern Mediterranean, and, especially 
after the second half of the eighth century, along the coasts and 
islands of the western Mediterranean, and in Lower Italv and Sicily 
(p. 51). 

Foundation of Cyrene (p. 49) and Massalia (about 600), attempted 
settlements upon Corsica, Sardinia, and the shores of Spain. In short, 
the Phoenician power was threatened with destruction throughout the 
entire West. 

Brought face to face with this danger, Carthage, which had mean- 
time grown considerably stronger, began about 600 to gather the 
other Phoenician cities under its control, to subjugate the country 
around its own commercial stations, and to secure its possession by 
the establishment of new colonies. The Carthaginians aimexed to 
their territory the African coast from Hippo in the W. to beyond 
Leptis in the E., and opposed armed resistance to the advancing power 
of Cyrene. In the peace which was concluded, the altars of the Phi- 
lami, E. of Leptis, were made the boundary. The Carthaginians 
subjugated Southern Spain and Sardinia, and, with Etruscan aid, drove 
the Phocceans from Corsica (537 ?). 

586-573. Tyre successfully endured a thirteen years' siege, from 
the land side, by Nebuchadnezzar, but was finally forced to 
acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Babylon. 
538. After the destruction of the Babylonian monarchy, by 
Cyrus, Phoenicia became subject to Persia. The Phoenician 
cities, however, retained their independence and their native 
kings. The Phoenicians henceforth furnished the principal 
part of the Persian fleet. An expedition for the conquest of 
Carthage, proposed by Cambyses, king of Persia, after the con- 
quest of Egypt, was rendered impossible of execution by the 
refusal of the Phoenicians to fight against their colony. 
During the Persian supremacy, Sidon was again the first city of 
Phoenicia. The Carthaginians, favored by tlie civil dissensions of the 

Karthager, Bd. I., 1879, who admits the truth of these statements only: that 
Carthage was a Tyrian colony, and was certainly founded before the eighth 
century. 



20 Ancient History. B. c 

Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the 
Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes ?) 

480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selinus, 
against the other Greek cities in Sicily. 

The Carthaginian army under Hamllcar was utterly defeated and 
scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse (^.vpaKovaai) and 
T heron of Agrigentum ('Atcpdyas). 

The Carthaginians purchased peace for 2000 talents, thereby sav= 
ing their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Soloeis, Motye, 

409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and 
Greeks in Sicily. 

The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta ^Eyeara) against Seli- 
nus, after conquering Selinus, Himera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured 
the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they 
maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timo- 
leon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge 
them. 

332. Capture of the island city, New Tyre, by Alexander the 
Great after a seven months' siege. 

Phoenicia became a part of the great Grae co-Macedonian 
monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, 
and for a time of that of the Ptolemies. 

317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks 
in Sicily. 

Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his 
rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged 
Syracuse. Agathocles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran 
a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans re- 
pulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syra- 
cuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; his army, which he left before 
Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Cartha- 
ginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306). 

After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the 
advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in 
Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at 
first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his sever- 
ity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced 
to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a 
Carthaginian fleet (276). 

§ 5. LYDIANS AND PHRYGIANS. 

Lydians. Semitic. 

Geography : Lydia, in the strict sense, or Maeonia, was the middle 
one of the three divisions of Asia Minor lying on the iEgsean Sea, the 
northern being Mysia, the southern Caria. Rivers: Hermus, CaystruSf 



b. c. Lydians and Phrygians. 21 

Pactolus (golden-sand) in Lydia; Mceander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: 
Sardes at the base of* the Tmolus range. The Lydians belonged to 
the Semitic race, like the Cilicians, and probably the Carians, whereas 
the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans. 

The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent reached 
to the Halys river (now the Kisil Irmak), and included, beside the 
countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the Pontus 
Euxinus (Black Sea), and the inland country of Phrygia. 

Religion : Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses 
Bla (Mylitta-Ashera) and Ma (Astarte). The last two became united 
in one goddess, under the name " the great mother " (Cybele), who 
was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis {Diana). 

Chronology : Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynas- 
ties, the Attyadai from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), 
and the Sandonidoz, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229- 
724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and 
called this dynasty, therefore, the Heradidce. The last king of this 
line, Candaules, was murdered (689 1 ) by his favorite Gyges in collu- 
sion with the king's consort. With Gyges the 

689 2 -549(?). Dynasty of the Mermnadae came to the throne. 
Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffering 
severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to 
Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended 
his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two succes- 
sors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war 
with the Grecian cities on the sea coast. 
Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnadce, warred with Cyaxares, 

king of Media, with success. 

610(?). Indecisive battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares. Eclipse 
of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty 
of peace the Halys was made the boundary between the 
Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was 
given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxares. Alyattes sub- 
dued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the 
south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the re- 
maining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal 
palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal 
tombs north of Sardes. 

563-549 (?). Croesus, Son of Alyattes, 
captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities 
of the coast, Ionian, iEolian, and Dorian, with the exception of 
Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with 
European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the 
deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the 
Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the am- 
biguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Inde- 
cisive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Croesus returned 

1 Eusebius, 699 ; Herodotus, 719. 

2 Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., III. 414, note 2. 



22 Ancient History. B. c. 

irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who de- 
feated him in a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Croesus 
prisoner (see p. 26). 

549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united 
with the Persian empire. 

Phrygians. 

750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in 1ST. W„ 
Phrygia, having its capital at Gordiceum. Its monarchs, the 
dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordias 
and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyat- 
tes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Crcesus (570-560). 
Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.) 

§ 6. INDIANS. Aryan. 

Geography : India, the central peninsula of the three which pro- 
ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast 
triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded 
on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of 
Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- 
graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central 
range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the 
Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the 
E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of 
the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by 
the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Suidimdn, and the 
Hdlas separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are 
pierced by the Indus River, the Khaibar Pass (3373 ft.), and the 
Boldn Pdss (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. 
'1. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the 
irainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima- 
layas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the 
five streams, 1 Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu- 
tdna ; cities : Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra 
(province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. 
III. The Deccan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges 
valley by the Vindhya mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the 
East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, 
Krishna, Kdveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of 
Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. 

Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the 
Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of 
Heaven; Varuna, the sky; Indra, the rain-vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, 
gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this 
primitive faith underwent a change. 

History : The Indians (Hindus) migrating from the northwest, 
came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence 
slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges, 

1 Indus, Ihelum, Chenaub, Ravi, Sutlej (modern names). 



b. c. Indians* 2$ 

where they were probably established as early as 1500 b. c. The 
native tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or 
pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the 
S. (Dravidians). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts 
of the Deccan and reached Ceylon. 

Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered 
district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated 
aborigines. Development of the royal power and of the priestly in= 
fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kshattriyas, 
warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure 
Aryan descent. The Sfidras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal 
descent, the Dasas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith 
into the religion of Brahma: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the pre- 
server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the 
Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- 
mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the 
Vedas ("revelations"), or services for the various religious cere- 
monials : Rig- Veda, the simplest form ; Sama- Veda • Yayur- Veda 
(black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached 
prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one 
being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the 
Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-bhdrata, 
Ramdyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- 
ance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) 
gathered together into the book of the laws of Mann, being, as it 
was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the 
whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- 
scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the 
second birth. 

Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the 
Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- 
low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. 

In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e 
"the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid 
dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Sud> 
dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally 3 
philosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object th* 
attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essen- 
tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. 

The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes in 
the old system, a strong Brahmanistic reaction. The war of the re- 
ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main- 
tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset bj 
great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day ovei 
300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 
327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 
317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of 
Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and 
his grandson, 
263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of Aco- 
ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grteco-Bactrian 



24 Ancient History. B. c. 

empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- 
ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian 
rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- 
nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and 
along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya 
against the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was 
the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings, who were 
succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch 
of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came 
into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the 
Hindus of the south. In the 

78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated 
and are henceforward not mentioned. 
The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were 

overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the 

fifth century A. d. 

§ 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan. 

Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the 
plateau of Iran, 1 between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- 
ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea 
on the 18., and the Erythrman Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the 
western border of this highland: Media (Ecbatana, Med. Hangma- 
tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along the 
Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargadas, Persepdlis), Carmania; on the Ery- 
thraean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the 
Paropanisadce, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu KoosJi) ; 2 on the 
northern border, Bactria or Bactriana (Baktra), Partliia and Hyr- 
cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, A ria and Drangiana; between 
the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda). 

East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana 
(the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian 
kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates 
the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, 
from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to 
the south and west. 

About 1000 (?)• Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- 
trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was 
contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one 
only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered 
against the Daeva," the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as 
set forth in the Avesta 3 is the conception of a continuous war- 
fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- 
mazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the 
evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- 
ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 

1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiouus, Tab. II. 

2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39. 

3 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence Zend- 
mvesta, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people. 



B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 25 

jury, of man and his soul after death. In this new doctrine 
Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, 
appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda, but never- 
theless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worship 
of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; 
reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of 
Ahuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athao, fire), 
by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, 
formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was 
copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the 
general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, 
which came to them from Bactria, through Media. 

About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bac- 
tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings 
are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet 
Firdusi (about 1000 a. d.). 
As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expedi- 
tions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth 
century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, be- 
came permanently subject to Assyria. 
640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians. 

640-558. Median Empire. 

The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 

708-655. Dejoces (At]i6k7]s, old Pers. Dahyaukd), to whom is as- 
cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatana. He does not 
appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or 
to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay 
tribute to the Assyrians. His son, 

655-633. Phraortes (Qpaoprns, Pers. Fravartis), was the first 
who united the whole country under one ruler and established 
the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, 
although their native ruler Achaimenes (Hakhamanis), who was 
raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- 
syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- 
queathed it to his descendants. 

After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 
15) his son, 

633-593. Cyaxares (K.va£dpris, Pers. UvahJcsathrd) succeeded him 
and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of 
the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), 
Cyaxares subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of 
Lydia (p. 21). 

606 (625 ?) . Cyaxares, in alliance with Ndbopolassar of Babylonia, 
captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria 
(p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to 
the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the 
death of Cyaxares was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. 
His son, 

593-558. Astyages ('Acrrvdyris), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of 



26 Ancient History. b. c. 

the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- 
sargadoz, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, 
deposed Astyages. The supremacy passed (558) from the 
Medes to the Persians. 
Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent; 
of Cyrus through his mother Mandane, daughter of Astyages, which 
is adorned after the Oriental manner, with the dream of Astyages, the 
interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- 
ognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpagus, his 
treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, 
who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger. 

According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astyages was named Amy- 
tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of 
Astyages and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 

558-330. Persian Empire founded by 

558-529. Cyrus (KSpos, Pers. Kurus). 

Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of 
Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over th© 
Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia 
(p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (554?), Cyrus 
advanced on Sardes, defeated Croesus in a second battle on the 
Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Croesus, and deprived him 
of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and ad- 
viser (554). * 
The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to 
burn Crossus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with 
Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous 
quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, who had formerly re- 
ceived valuable presents from Croesus, betrays a purpose of bringing 
Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal 
is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the 
Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the command of the Persian 
faith, not to contaminate the sacred fire. Probably Croesus wished 
to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, 
according to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the 
Lydian story, the sun-god Sandon does not accept the offering, but 
puts out the flames with rain. 

Cyrus returned to Ecbatana. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly 
repressed. Mazdres and Harpagus made the Grecian coast cities 
tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Phocceans migrated to 
Corsica; driven thence (see. p. 19) they went to Elea (Velia) in 
southern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lycia. 

539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. After 
a siego of nearly two years (diversion of the Euphrates) 
Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire was in- 
corporated with the Persian ; the Phoenicians and Cilicians 

1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Duncker (Book viii., chap. 6j^ 
gives 549. 



B. c. Bactrians, 3Iedes, Persians. 27 

retained their native rulers under Persian supremacy ; the 
Jews were sent from Babylon back to Palestine (p. 11). 
529. Cyrus, who was occupied during the last nine years of his 
reign with wars against the eastern peoples, fell in one of these 
expeditions. The story of his death, like that of his birth, 
has been poetically adorned and variously related. According 
to one tradition, probably of Median origin (Herodotus, I. 
202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tomyris, the queen of 
the Massagetce, whose son he had overcome by deceit. She 
thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skin- 
bag of blood that he might " drink his fill of blood." Ac- 
cording to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound 
which he received in a victory over the Derbices. The son 
and successor of Cyrus, 

529-522. Cambyses (Ka^/^xn^, Pers. Kambujiya), con- 
quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7). 
525. 1 Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward ^Ethiopia; 
failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to turn back. 
The tyrant ot Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cam- 
byses, but a projected attack upon Carthage by sea was pre- 
vented by the refusal of the Phoenicians to lend their ships 
(p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the 
temple of Jupiter Ammon (Oasis Sivah). 
Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis 2 (?), and mani- 
fested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the 
way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental 
wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and pro- 
claimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 

522. Bardija (Gr. S/xepSis), who had been murdered at Cambyses* 
command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death 
by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most influential 
of whom, 

521-485. Darius (AapeTo?, Pers. Darayavus), son of Hys- 
taspes (Vistagpa), was made king. 
The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line 
of the Achozmenidce (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and 
Bardija) and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son,, 
Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later 
his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote 
of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85.) 

Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only 
after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopyrus, 
in order to deceive the Babylonians.) 

518 (?). Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken 
out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Parthia, 
etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus. 

1 According to Brugsch, 527. 

'<* See on this point Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt, II. 289 ff., who, by the 
genealogy of the Apt, showed the improbability of the story. 



28 Ancient History. b. c. 

513 (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians 
with a land force of 700,000 men. The fleet of the Greeks of 
Asia Minor was conducted by the tyrants of the Ionian cities. 
Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister 
(Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of provisions in- 
duced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued 
by the faithfulness of Histiceus of Miletus (against the advice 
of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia 
made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent 
from Egypt. 
Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence 
of the " Great King " (j3aonAei/s tuv /3acnAeW, [Mtyas fiaaikeis, Pers. 
Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyandm, whence the modern Persian Shahin- 
shali). Ecbatana in Media was the summer residence. Erection of 
a new royal palace at Persepolis in Persis, where ruins with inscrip- 
tions and sculptures have been discovered, as well as at Susa. At 
Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings. 

Divine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants 
was the final purpose of the state. Maintenance of a costly court, 
with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. 
Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which Ramessu 
II. had begun and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of 
postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. 
Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap 
(Persian Khshatra-pati, i. e. "lord of the province"), with regal 
accommodation in palaces surrounded by extensive gardens {Para- 
disial). Subject cities or tribes, and indeed whole nations, enjoyed 
their own laws and separate administration, under native though de- 
pendent princes. 

500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by His- 
ticeus of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and sum- 
moned to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras. With the 
assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and 
burned. The Ionians, defeated by the Persian army, were 
abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet 
was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The Ionians were 
again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of 
Darius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris. 

493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks (p. 56). 
Great preparations for a new expedition against Greece. Re- 
volt among the Egyptians. 

485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son, 

485-465. Xerxes I. (aepfrs, Pers. Khshayarsha). 

480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- 
dered by Artabanus, captain of the body-guard. The second 
son of Xerxes, 

465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called MaKpSx^ip, Lon- 
gimanus, succeeded to the throne. 

462—455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under IncrOs, assisted by 



B. C. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 29 

the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megabyzus (Amyr- 
tceus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). 
Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal de- 
cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Merce- 
nary troops. The son of Artaxerxes, 

424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, 
by his brother, 

Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered 
by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 

424-405. Darius II., Nothus. He was under the influence of his 
wife Parysatis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained 
their independence for sixty years (414-354). 

405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the 
younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked 
the king in the neighborhood of Babylon. 

401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in personal combat with his 
brother. 

400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon (Anabasis). 

362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Phoenicians and Egyptians 
suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp- 
tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 

338-336. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a great- 
grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 

336-330. Darius III., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. 
War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the 
satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela 
(331). 

330. Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 
4th period, p. 74. 

§ 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanian? 2 

Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates 
to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian 
Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the 
same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many 
ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the 
Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of 
Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 
250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of 

a tribe of the Dahai (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 
250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 
247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of 

Parthia. His son, 
214-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. 
Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates /.) accom- 
plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 

1 Bawlinson. 

2 The use of this name must not be understood as implying belief in the racial 
unity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of 
Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family. 



30 Ancient History. B. c.-A. d. 

174-136. Mithridates I., founded the Empire of the Par- 
thians, extending his sway over Media, Susiana, Per* 
sia, Babylonia, Bactria. Subject nations were permitted 
to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The 
Parthian civilization was rude and of a low order. J 



136-127. Phraates II. (Arsaces VII.) repressed a revolt of 

Ionia, but fell lighting against the Turanians. The incursions 
of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus 
{Arsaces VIII.), 127-124, who likewise fell in battle against 
them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- 
ridates II. (Arsaces IX.), 124-87, who also extended the 
power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close 
of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Under 
Phraates III. {Arsaces XII.), 69-60, the Parthians first be- 
came embroiled with Borne, war with this power breaking out 
in 54. Under Orodes I. (Arsaces XIV.), 54^-37, Expedition 
of Crassus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against 
Phraates IV. (Arsaces XV.). From 37 b. c. to 107 a. d. 
Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns 
were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Volo- 
geses I., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 

107-121 A. d. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia 
brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, 
whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. 
Vologeses III. (Arsaces XXVII.), 149-192 A. d., became in- 
volved in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the 
complete submission of the Parthian. His successor, Vologeses 
IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. 

215-226 A. d. Artabanus III. (Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- 
thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of 
Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had 
regained its former power, when the empire was brought to 
an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under 
Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian 
monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- 
dom of the Sassanidae, or the New Persian Empire (226- 
652 A. d. (p. 187). 

§ 9. CHINESE. Turanian. 

Geography : China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, 

embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, 
is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow 
Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin 
China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of 
the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises 
less than half of the Chinese empire, being about 1474 miles long by 
1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N". E. Mountainous 
and hilly in south. Rivers: Hwang-ho (Yellow River)', Yang-tsze- 
Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking, 



B. c. Chinese. 31 

the capital of the empire; 2, Keang-soo, the most populous and best 
watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nan-king, Shang-hai; 3, Gan- 
Jiwuy; 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; 6, Fuh-keen, 
comprising the island of Formosa (Taiwan); 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nan- 
9, Ho-nan; 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Shan-se; 
12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kwang-tung, with the 
cities, Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Kivang- 
se; 17, Yun-nan; 18, Kwei-chow; 19, Shing-king. 

Religion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- 
nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichisn\ 
while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship di Ti. Their 
religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of 
spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and 
yin), heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction 
all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system 
of rewards and punishments. System of offerings ; never human sac- 
rifices. In the fifth century b. c. appeared the philosopher Con- 
fucius (JCung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and 
did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal 
influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- 
val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of 
the Golden Rule. 1 Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the 
author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method 
of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- 
opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a 
system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of 
Taoism, deified Lao-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of 
the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about A. D. 65, where 
it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- 
otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. 
Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of 
the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated 
by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. 
No state religion; toleration of all faiths. 

Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- 
eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from 
the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the first 
settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. 

The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- 
lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have 
severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 B. c. are probably 
wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between 
two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- 
vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- 
mous emperors Yew-chaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- 
coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, 
who first drained the valley of Hwang-ho. These sovereigns are to be 
regarded as largely mvthical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) 
and Shang (1766-1123). 

1 Legge, Religions of China, 137-139. 



32 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d, 

1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty 
we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. 
The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence 
the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- 
der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 B. c. 

255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic 
monarch Che-ivang-te (246-210), who extended the empire to 
the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 
miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, Che- 
wang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical 
and philosophical books. 

206 b. c-221 a. d. Dynasties of East and "West Han. 
Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the 
feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- 
ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan. 
Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. d.). Annexation of 
Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great 
confusion. 

221-265 A. d. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wei, in the north; 
Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. D., re- 
united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of 
Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which 
continued until 

590 A. d. Yang-Kian, prince of Suy, in the northern king- 
dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the 
whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of 
Suy. 

§ 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. 

Geography: The Japanese 1 empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- 
ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- 
churia, and Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu; Shiko- 
H; Hondo, 2 or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three 
thousand small islands. 3 Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, 
volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of 
the east coast of Hondo. Rivers numerous but small; among the 
largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gawa, Kwd-gavm, Ti-gawa. Lake Biioa 
in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tohio, Yokohama, Osaka. 

Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native 
name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better known 
abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which 
comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 

1 Japan (Zipanr/u in the Middle Age) is a name given to the empire by 
foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 

2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- 
ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon, the 
name frequently given it by foreigners, is the name of the whole empire. 

3 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kurile islands. 



B. o.-A. d. Japanese. 33 

mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of 
these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- 
ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. 
It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political 
engine. In 552 A. d. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where 
it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among 
others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- 
dhism for a time overshadowed the older religion, but the present 
government has fully reinstated the Shinto faith. 

Chronology: The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- 
vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage 
Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly 
a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. 

While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, 
followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and 
who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years 
each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic 
history is 660 b. c; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much 
later. 

660-585 b. c. Jimmu Tenno, 1 the first Mikado, 2 being 
the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of 
the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shihoku, and a part of 
the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars 
as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken 
dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122d 
(123d counting Jingo) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin 
(97-30 b. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- 
tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of 
the people. _ Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- 
perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were 
pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is 
the reign of the 12th mikado, 

71-130 a. r>. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the 
warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the Koanto. The 
14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife 
the renowned 

201-269 A. d. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- 
though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion 
in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, which she re- 
duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her 
son and successor, 

270-310 a. d. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as 

fj 1 H * S £T Ue name was Kw-yamato-iware-hilco-no-milcoto. After the introduc- 
tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were 
transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customarv for 
the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which thev had 
Dome while living. The first mikado received the name Jimmu, " spirit of 
war, to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, " lord 
ot heaven." ' 

2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from Mi, 
honorable," and Kado, "gate" (compare " Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh* 
p» 1, note 3), or from Mika, "great," and to, "place." 
3 



34 Ancient History. b. c. 

the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- 
ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. 
From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are 
marked by no great events. 

B. WESTERN PEOPLES. 

§ 1. CELTS. Aryan. 
Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of 
authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- 
longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of 
that family be accepted, 1 were the first branch to enter upon the 
westward migration. 

a. Continental Celts. Gauls. 

Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), 
Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KsXtoI) or 
Gauls (rd\\oi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: 
Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, 
the Marne, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, 
but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts. 2 Tribes : 
Remi, Suessiones, Nervii? Menapii. Gauls, 4 dwelling between the 
Seine, Marne, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes : In the 
valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- 
orum, now Paris), Senones ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : 
Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boii, JEdui, Averni; W. of the Seine : 
Treviri ; in the valley of the Saone and Rhone : Sequani, Allobroges. 
The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not 
Celts, but Iberians.' In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. 

Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was 
largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman 
gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose 
nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It 
was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- 
ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the 
great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, 
Grannus (Apollo), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, 
Cannulus (Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (Minerva ?); 
Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- 
ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal 
honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but 
were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 

1 See Introduction. 

2 The Belgians are also claimed as non-Aryans, of the same race as the 
Aquitanians. 

3 Dahn, Urgesch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. 

4 In spite of Caesar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own 
language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the 
Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from the Celtic tribes (using Celt in the 
narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has even been made to draw 
the geographical boundary between them. 



B. C. Celts. 3£ 

and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- 
diction. Human sacrifices. 

Civilization : That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an ad- 
vanced stage of civilization 1 is clear from the readiness with which 
they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that 
their social state as depicted by Caesar exhibits a degeneracy which 
was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- 
trian state under the Mero wingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries A. D. 

Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of 
Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. 

The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind 
at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where 
many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. 
According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the 
Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- 
thonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. 
Not earlier than 

2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their 
principal settlements were made in central France. They 
here attained their highest culture, and from this point 
detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were 
four principal emigrations. 

1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 

2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants 
and formed the Celtiberians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- 
tus in the fifth century b. c. 

3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places 
this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 b. c. 
Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied 
(Gallia Cisalpina). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and 
Verona), Boii (Bologna), Senones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 
390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. 

military leader. 
283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the 

Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 
238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat 

of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. 

Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. 

In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to 

take up arms, but in the 
193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken 

and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 

4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a 
Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon 
Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where 
they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. 

1 The stage of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must 
be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and 
political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form 
a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did 
before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. 



36 Ancient History. b. c. 

Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. 
Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic 
migration had made itielf felt in the west, but the details of the 
conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there 
interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 
125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a 
province {Gallia Narbonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri 
may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes 
played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 

58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after 
which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. 

b. Celts of the British Isles. 
BRITAIN. 

Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and 
is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and 
the English Channel, W. by St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, North 
Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical 
divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. 
The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith of 
Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- 
ous small lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply 
cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly 
in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. 
Eastern rivers : Humber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Wetland, Nen, Ouse, 
running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western 
rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater 
part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, 
of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsweald covered a large 
part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a 
huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hain- 
ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much 
more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of 
Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. 

Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than 
their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- 
tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- 
toms and religion. Druids. Bards. 

History, a. Mythical : Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- 
agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- 
abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their 
race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard 
of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, 
son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samotkes. 
Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 
(a. m.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed 
by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, 
Lucius, 2211 a. m., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a 
descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain 



b. c.-a. d. Celts. 37 

until 2896 A. M. or 1108 b. c, when the line of Japhet recovered the 
island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of JEneas of Troy. 
Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud's Town, London. He was 
followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladud, 
founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (496-491), with 
whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into five king- 
doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of 
Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left his island 
home to sack Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of 
Galatia. 1 Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (160-140) . 
Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began 
to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Csesar), Cymbeline (19 
B. C.-16 A. d.), Caractacus, Vortigerh (445-455 (485) a. d.). Arthur 
(508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the 
kings and princes of Wales. 

b. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came 
to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very 
early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or 
northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it 
is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, 
dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired 
race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without 
exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- 
turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time 
it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed 
the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Caesar, 
and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion 
of the island. Tribes : Cantii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Belgce, 
Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. 

The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from 
Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century 
B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English 
scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the 
rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from 
Britain. With 

55-54 b. c. The two expeditions of Csesar, the actual 
history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was 
transitory. 

43 a. d. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and his 
generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 

58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 

78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman 
arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth 
to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of 
the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet 
part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas 
covered its soil in profusion. 

121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 
1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from fieiphi; his army settled in 

Eralatia. 



38 Ancient History. b. c. 

139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agrieola. In 210 Severus 

added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 
180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to 
Christianity, after which the new religion spread through- 
out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded 
at Canterbury and York (?). 
With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops 
were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in 
supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the 
third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew 
more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered 
from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the 
Saxon Shore, 1 the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash 
and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. 
From 
286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed 

himself emperor of Britain. 
360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 

410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- 

drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A 
period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- 
lowed, broken by the 

411. "Alleluia "Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- 
manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, 
Vortigern (Guorthigen), either by usurpation or election, ob- 
tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as 
the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- 
ors (p. 176). 

IRELAND. 

Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. 
by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all 
other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with 
iiilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrib, L. 
Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree), and 
rivers (Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon). 

Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find 
Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic culture, but both in 
a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, 
that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of 
primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. 

History : Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of 
very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- 
vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- 
land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 

1 Comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lap- 
penberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons 
upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been 
asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref* 
erence to our "Indian Frontier," by which 'is meant land held by the whites 
but molested by Indians, might dispel this objection. The argument from 
coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be 
proved. 



B. c. Greeks. 39 

Ireland 300 years, and *,hen died of the plague, and were succeeded 
by II. Nemed, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- 
bolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various parts of 
the island. IV. The Tuatha De Danann, of the race of Nemed, who 
defeated and nearly exterminated the Firbolgs. V. Milesians or 
Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and 
conquering the Tuatha De' Danann, divided Ireland among the sons 
and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back 
to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at 
present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian 
era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts {Cruithni, Picts) ; 
in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes {Cymric), and in 
the southwest {Munster) by a people of southern extraction {Ibe- 
rians?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established 
incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- 
tory is filled. Tuathal (died 160 a. d.), a powerful king who reigned 
over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or 
kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- 
ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in 
the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the 
Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The 
Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladius, 
sent to Ireland, 431 A. d., died soon after. St. Patrick {Succath or 
Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. 
Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- 
tury attained wide renown for the learning of their members. 

§ 2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. 

See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. 

The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, r) 'EWds) bounded N. by Mace- 
donia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare JEgasum, 
S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into 
four principal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, 
Epirus. 

A. Peloponnesus (?j zie\oir6vvri<Tos, Island of Pelops), connected 
with the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the 
N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine dis- 
tricts : 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by Ionians, in twelve com- 
munities, or cantons. ^Egium, capital of the confederacy, Patrai. 
2. Elis or Eleia, in iEolic dialect, Valis, drained by the Alpheus and 
Peneus. It is subdivided into Elis Proper, or Hollow Elis : Elis 
and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis : Olympia, not a city but a temple of 
Zeus, in a walled grove {'AXtis), with places for games, altars, and va- 
rious buildings, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia : Pylos, the home of 
Nestor, opposite the island of Sphactena, Messene, built in 369 b. c, 
the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia {AaKwviK-f}), with 
the mountain range of Taygetus, ending in the promontory Tsenarus : 
Sparta (Zirdprri), on the right bank of the Eurotas ; north of Sparta, 
Sellasia ; on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, 



40 Ancient History. b. c. 

5. Argolis (to "Apyos, y 'Apyeia) comprised many cantons, politically 
independent of one another : Argos, with its harbor Nauplia, on the 
gulf of Argolis, near by Tiryns, with Cyclopean walls, Hermione y 
Trozzen, Epidaurus, on the Saronicus sinus; inland, Mycence with 
Cyclopean structures. The Lion Gate, the so-called Treasure House 
of Atreus. 6. Phliasia : Phlius. 7. Corinthia : Corinth, formerly 
Ephyra with its citadel Acrocorinthus. 8. Sicyonia: Sicyon (2i/ciwv). 
9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges 
Cyllene and Erymanthus on the borders of Achaia; Mantinea, Tegea 3 
Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. 

B. Central Greece, 1 also divided into nine districts: 1. Megaris, 
since the Dorian conquest, belonging ethnographically and politi- 
cally to Peloponnesus; Megara, and its harbor Niscea. 2. Attica 
('ATTt/c7]) with the mountains Parnes, Brllissus (Pentelicus), Hymettus, 
and the promontory of Sunium, the rivulets Cephissus and Ilissus. 
Athens ('Adrjuai) with the Acropolis (Propylcea, Parthenon, Erech-* 
theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (Iletpatevs), connected with the 
city by the Long Walls (ra ixanph Telxv ; ra ovceATj), the two unimportant 
harbors Munychia and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served 
as a roadstead. Attic demes : Eleusis, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 
3. Bceotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copals, traversed 
by the Cephissus ; Thebes (eTrrcfrruAos), with its citadel the Cadmea; 
Thespice; Leuctra ; Platcece, which separated itself very early from 
the Bceotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, 
Orchomenos. On the coast ; Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan- 
agra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (Ae\(poi), 
with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, 
Cirrha; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (AoKpol ii$oi), for a time di- 
vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian 
Locrians with the town Opus, and the northern of the Epicne- 
midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) 
with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (Ao/cpol eairepioi, called 
by the other Grecians AoKpol d£6\at, "the stinking"). Amphissa, 
Naupactus. 7. Doris (Awpis), between the mountains (Eta and Par- 
nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of 
the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four unim- 
portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. iEtolia, CalydOn, Pleuron, and 
Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time 
of the iEtolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; 
Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxeA^os) which separates Acarna- 
nia from JEtolia. 

C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the 
mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus ; in the 
S. Othrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Cambu- 
nian mountains. 2 Five divisions from S. to N.: 1. Phthiotis, in the 
most southern part, Malis, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of 
Thermopylas, i. e. " gate of the warm springs ; " Lamia. 2. Thessa- 
liotis, Pharsdlus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pheroe, Crannon, Larissa on the 

1 The expression Hellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; the 
Greeks never used TItllas for the name of this particular part of the country. 
^ But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geogr., § 210, note 1. 



B. c. Greeks. 41 

Peneus. 4. Hestiseotis. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, 

Iolcos, on the Sinus Pagasozus, Demetrias. 

D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited by Illyrian tribes not of 
pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- 
tory was Ambracia, not far from the Ambracian gulf, and Dodona 
(oracle of Zeus); Thesprotians, Pandosia on the A cheron, Chao- 
nians. 

In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following 
places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the 
reign of Archelaus (formerly JEgae or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- 
tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice : Olynthus, Potidoza, Staglrus. In 
Thrace: Amphipoiis near the mouth of the Strymon, Philippce, Abdera, 
Perinihus (Heraclea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: 
Sestos, opposite Abydos in Asia Minor. 

Most important islands : In the iEgean sea : 1, Crete 

(Kpr]Tr], €Kar6/xTTo\is) : Cnosus (Gnossus), and Gortyn (a) ; 2, Thera, a 
colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene in Africa (p. 49), 
Melos; 3, the 12 Cyclades: Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- 
los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, Andros, Tenos, 
etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, JEglna (A?y iva); 5, Salamis. In the sea 
of Eubcea; 6, Euboea with the promontory of Artemisium in the 
north, Chalcis, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- 
ihrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S. : 10, 
Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, 
Lesbos: Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, Samos opposite the prom- 
ontory of Mycale; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. 

In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, 
(Ktirpos), cities (originally Phoenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis 
(Schalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite 
(Venus Amathusia). 

In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with 
temple of. Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer 
Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucas; 6, Corey ra (KepKvpa), perhaps the Scheria 
of Homer. 

RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. 1 

The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature- worship, 
distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their 
intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail 
which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great 
gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities : Zeus " the 
God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; 
Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god 
of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and 
poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephcestus, 
god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set 
apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, 
commercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 

1 Rawlinson. Religions of the Ancient World. Also Grote, Hist, of Greece, 
vol. I.; Curtius, Griech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 passim. 



42 Ancient History. b. c. 

sort of Zeus; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of 
Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- 
dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother 
Phcebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob- 
ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of 
the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. 

In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned:* Dionysius, god of 
wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, 
the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the 
ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads, 
Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order, Satyrs (among 
whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters 
{Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. 

Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- 
mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus 
(Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). 

The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered 
in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- 
provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all 
divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- 
shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- 
manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- 
ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant 
coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe 
and race, each city, district and country had its recurring fes- 
tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- 
ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in 
July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth 
(9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the 
Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. 
These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- 
nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionies (p. 51), a reli- 
gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political 
side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- 
ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of 
secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy 
of priests ; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- 
cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. 

Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced 
minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- 
sential oneness of divinity. 

GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. 

x-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian 
migration. 

1104 (?)-50Q. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- 
stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 

500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemony 
down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 

338-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the 
subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction of Corinth, 



b. c. Greeks. „ 43 

FIRST PERIOD. 

Mythical time, down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration 

(x-1104?). 1 

The Greeks, 2 or as they called themselves the Hellenes ("EAA^ves), 
belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. 

The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country 
were the Pelasgians. The meaning of this name is much disputed. 
According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards 
divided into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the 
Pelasgians and Hellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter 
name is applied to those tribes winch, " endowed with peculiar abil- 
ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above 
the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within 
the same by force of arms," 3 so that their name became in historic 
times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name 
Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phoenician in- 
habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce of Orchomenos, and 
afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of 
Epirus, Acadia, etc. 

Dodona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, 
was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains 
of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in 
Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bceotia. 

Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided 
into various tribes. Of these the Acheeans were most prominent 
during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer 
to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the 
Dorians and Ionians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are 
then classed together under the name -Slolian, and the dialects 
which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as JEolian. The 
following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very 
late period, and to have originated at Delphi. 

Hellen (son of Deucalion) 

iEolus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exile) 

Ion Achaeus. 

We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- 
lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, 
a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- 
rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous 
region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as 
shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the 
ancestors of the Ionians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- 

2 According to Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., 100 years later. 

2 Graken (Grseci, Tpat/cot) was the name given to the Greeks by the people di. 
Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Hellenes 
pi general. 

3 Curtius, Griechische Geschichte, I. 29; Hist, of Greece, N. Y. 1876, I. 41 



44 Ancient History. b. c. 

gia, by way of the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there 
transformed into a race of seamen, and "gradually spread themselves 
over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece. 1 (The 
former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). 

Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- 
tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- 
authentic immigrations. 2 

Cecrops (KeVpo^), according to the original story autochthonus 
king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropla (Acropolis of Athens), 
was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian 
and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of 
Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented 
as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. 

The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were 
called the Cecropla, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of 
the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- 
tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in 
Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropla was per- 
sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops 
was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two 
becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechiheion, 
the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. 
The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- 
athenoza and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, 
the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in 
the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries). Eleusis was 
united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to 
the legend, was succeeded by (Eneus, the latter by JSgeus, the father 
of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 45). 

A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of JEgyptus, came from 
Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- 
aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- 
bands, the sons of JEgyptus, and were for this crime condemned to 
fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- 
aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert 
themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from 
them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend 
the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. 

On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Pelopidse 
from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foundation. Pelops, 
son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came 
to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the 
help of Achosans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns 
and Mycenm, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of 
Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while 
Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and 
sculptures in Mycenae, which are ascribed to the Atridce, resemble 
Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest 
by way of Lydia. 

1 Curtius, I., Griech. Gesck.. I. 29 sqq. ; Hist, of Greece, I. 41. 

2 Cf. Duncker, Gesck. des Allh., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, 
Griech. Gesch., I. 58; Mist, of Greece, I. 73. 



B. c. Greeks. 45 

Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- 
sonification of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization 
which Hellas had received from Phoenicia (p. 18). 

The national heroes of Grecian legend. 

The myth of Heracles ('EpaK\rjs, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- 
mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and 
ethical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity 
whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In 
him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- 
god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- 
tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at 
the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the 
eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer 
activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends 
connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- 
plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as 
their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, 
Heraclidse ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. 
Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition 
to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (Auglas in 
Elis, Tyndareos in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding 
Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of 
heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- 
ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- 
cules). 

Theseus (Qrjcre^s), son of JEgeus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the 
family hero of the Ionians, and of the Athenians in particular. 
He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, 
he was born, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers (Periphetes, 
Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes), so that the Ionians of the 
Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the 
isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the 
Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens 
sent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bull 
which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the 
Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging 
the rape of Antiope. These three myths express the historical fact 
of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the 
Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human 
sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the 
Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician 
goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances 
in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of 
the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the 
people into the three orders: Eupatridce (nobles), Geomori (peasants), 
and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four 
ancient classes (Phyla}) : Geleontes (nobles), Hoplltes (warriors), 
Argadeis (artizans), JEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the 
Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion 
(p. 43). 



46 Ancient History. B. a 

The Grecian legends adopted Minos (Mlvas), also originally of 
Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians 
who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor 
of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before 1500. 

Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. 

Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. 

Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyae, Athdmas of Iolcos, in Thessaly s 
whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, 
fled with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was 
given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell 
into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near 
Abydos. Phrixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king 
JEetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a 
grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from Iolcos, in- 
cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the 
head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of 
Minyae alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by 
Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- 
session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter 
of JEetes. Return to Iolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of 
Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of 
Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glauca, 
the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her 
own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of 
jEgeus. 

This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The 
golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the " cloud," sends, is a repre- 
sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- 
parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of 
blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of 
blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, 
iEetes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded 
and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the 
Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyse. The principal site of the wealth and 
power of the Minyse was Orchonienos in Bceotia; but the gulf of 
Pagasce, on which Iolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter- 
course by sea. 

War of the Seven against Thebes. 

The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and 
was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. CEdipus (olhhovs), son of 
Jocasta, and Laios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is 
exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied 
injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polybos in 
Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, 
solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes 
on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), 
becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his 
crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters 
Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('Et6okAtjs) and 



B. C. Greeks. 47 

Polynlces (TioXvpetiais). Polynlces attacks Thebes with his allies s 
Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capdneus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus. 
The hostile brothers fall in personal contest ; of the other princes all 
perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of 
Thebes. 

"War of the Epigoni. 

Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seven). 
Thebes captured and plundered. Thersander, son of Polynlces, made 
king of Thebes. 

1193-1184. Trojan War. 

Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was 
Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the 
legend : Hector ("Ekto>p), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris 
(Alexandras'). The latter abducts Helena ('EAeVrj), wife of Menelaus, 
of Sparta. The noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. 
Agamemnon of Mycense, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the 
Greeks; Sthenelus of Tiryns ; Nestor of Pylos ; Achilles ('AxiAAeik), 
king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and 
the Nereid Thetis; Patroclus; Ajax (Afas), and Teucer, sons of Tela- 
mon of Salamis; the younger Ajax, son of Oileus, leader of the 
Locrians; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, 
son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. 

Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon 
and Glaucus, leaders of the Lycians, troops from Mysia, Mozonia (in 
Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and P ozones from 
the other side of the strait. 

The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the 
fact of a military expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans 
and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. 
Perchance the iEolian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the 
ensuing contests with the native population gave rise to the romance 
of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before 
the Dorian migration. The prehistoric existence of a powerful city 
in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpotri and "IAtoi', is 
certain. 

Connected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the 
return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by his wife 
Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children 
Orestes and Electra. The ten years wandering of Odysseus and his 
many adventures (Polyphemus, Lastrygones, Circe, Calypso, the 
Phseacians, etc.). 

SECOND PERIOD. 

From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning 
of the Persian Wars, (1104 (?)-500.) 

Migration of the Thessalians from Epirus to the valley of the 
Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of the former inhabitants, 
^Eolians, part became serfs (ireveaTai), part fled the country. A por- 



48 Ancient History. e- c. 

tion of the latter conquered Bceotia. The previous inhabitants of 
Bceotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyse in Orchome- 
nos, and the Cadmeans in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- 
tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward un- 
known to history. 

The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They 
had inhabited the country about the Othrys and (Eta, and the small 
mountainous region where they maintained themselves after the in- 
vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which 
emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by iEtolian 
bands, they crossed to the Peloponnesus between Naupactus, where 
they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the 
so-called 

1104 (F). 1 Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus by the Dorians and iEtolians, according to 
the story, under the leadership of the Heraclidse (Teme- 
nus, Cresphontes, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. 

The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Peloponnesus 
without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on 
the western coast. The inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being 
subdued, the JEtolians established themselves here, and founded a new 
commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the iEtolians and 
Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through 
southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- 
lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The 
native population, consisting of Achseans and iEolians, were in 
part expelled, in part placed in subjection; while in some regions they 
gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last 
was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with 
the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their 
princely rights and support in their supremacy. 

So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after 
much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- 
ties: 1. Messenia (Cresphontes) ; 2. Sparta (Procles and Eurysthenes, 
sons of Aristodemus); 3. Argos (Temenus), at first the most powerful 
atate, at the head of a league, to which Epidaurus and Trcezen, under 
their own rulers, belonged; 4. Phlius; 5. Sicyon; 6. Corinth, these 
three containing many of the old inhabitants, who lived among the 
new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus : 7. 
Megara; and 8. the island .Slgina (A?y iva). 

The remains of the old population, the Achseans, who were driven 
from their homes, expelled or subjugated the JEgialian Ionians, who 
inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. 

The whole region was henceforward called Achaia. 

10G8 (?). Codrus (K^Spos), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- 
untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. 
According to the legend, Codrus was the son of the Nestorian 
Melanthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 

1 See p. 43, note 1- 



b. c. Greeks. 49 

The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was 
the practice of colonization, on a great scale, which at first was car- 
ried on by the tribes which had been expelled from their homes, but 
in which the conquering Dorians soon took active part. 

The Pelasgic population, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on 
the peninsula Chalcidice, partly in Crete, and partly on the coast of 
Mysia; the Minyce from Iolcos, and Orchomenos occupied Lemnos, 
Imbros, Samothrace. More important were the 

1000-900 (?) ^Eolian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which 
settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islands. 

•ZEolian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Methymna on the 
island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on the mainland of Asia Minor 
(Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). 

The Ionians, who were driven away by the Acha^ans, fled first to 
Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a 
common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of 
which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephesus, 
Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon, and occupied the islands of Samos and 
Chios. 

Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicarnassus and Cni- 
dus. Dorians and Achosans founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, 
where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in 
Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north 
coast of Africa. 

1000 (?). x Homer and his successors (Homeridae). Iliad and 
Odyssey. 

Constitution of society and government. During the heroic 
period, and at the beginning of historic times, we find everywhere a 
patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived 
their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation 
in all states of a republican constitution, partly through the extinction, 
partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. This republican 
constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democratic, 
frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- 
acy of a Tyrant (Tvpauvos), a name applied to every one who attained 
supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the 
idea of an arbitrary or cruel government. 

The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern- 
ment in which the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- 
ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In 
most of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, 
BOt of citizens, but of slaves. 1 Democracies in the modern sense 
were almost unknown in ancient times. 

In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly 
distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatoe, Qz-Kapnarai, comprising o/aoioi, 

1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch, of Homer differ almost five 
hundred years from one another. 

2 Cf. Becker, Charicles (trans.), 361; and Schoemann, Antiquities of 
Greece, L 100 foil. 

4 



50 Ancient History. b. c. 

i. e. those having full rights, and virop-eioves i. e. those of less means, 
who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- 
vided into three Phylae, each composed of 10 Obae («/8at) ; these were 
the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La- 
conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending 
to the sea; 2. Lacedcemonians or Periceci (ireploiicoi, i. e. they who dwell 
round about), descendants of those Achseans who had submitted to 
the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- 
utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without 
political rights, but were, however, bound to military service; 3. 
Helots (from e?A.«T«, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were 
divided among the Spartiatae by lot, and tilled their lands, paying to 
their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Periceci 
was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the 
Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- 
riceci. 

820 (?)• Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. 

Lycurgus (Avuovpyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and 
guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the 
three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His 
code of laws was for the Spartiatae alone. The form of government 
was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings 
(generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid 
race, one a member of the Agidce (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the 
other of the Eurypontidce (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see 
p. 48). The Council of Elders (yepovo-la, 28 Gerontes, at least 60 years 
of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had: 
1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the 
popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular 
assembly (a\ia), consisting of all Spartiatae over thirty years of age, 
who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and 
decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- 
spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, 
acquired great power (p. 56). 

Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, 
which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of 
the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these 
lands. No new division of all landed property. 1 (Tradition makes 
Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatae, 
and 30,000 for the Periceci.) Establishment of social unions or com- 
pulsory clubs (an-qval), whose members ate together, even in time of 
peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, 
and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. 
The Crypteia (icpvwrela), an organized guard over the Helots by young 
Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots. 2 

776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in which 

l Grote, Hist, of Greece (Boston, 1851), II, 393 foil. 
8 Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, 1. 195. 



B. c. Greeks. 51 

the name of the Olympian victor was recorded. (The first was 
Coroibus.) 

Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par* 
ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nemean games since 573, in honor of Zeus, 
Isthmean games (Poseidon, since 582), and Pythian games (Apollo, en- 
larged after 590). Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, founded, according 
to tradition, at the command of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians) 
from Cnosus. Amphictyonies, societies for common worship (per- 
formance of sacrifices), the most important of which was the Delphic. 
734. Foundation of Syracuse 1 by the Corinthian Archias. 
743-724. (?) First Messenian war. Aristodemus king of the Mes- 
senians. Defence of Ithome. Those Messenians that did not 
emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- 
cated as conquered territory. 
708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 
645-628. 2 Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira 
(El pa), for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- 
panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part 
of the Messenians fled to Sicily; Zancle, also, was occupied by 
them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana 
before the fifth century. 3 The remaining Messenians became 
Helots. 
In Athens government of the nobles (Eupatridai) since the death 
of Codrus (1068 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, 
at first (1067-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- 
clusively, afterwards (752-683) elected for ten years, the first four 
only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- 
tridae, in general. 

From 682 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and 
serving only one year, taken from the Eupatridoz alone, and chosen 
by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Eponymus (i. e. he from 
whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, i. e. 
king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of 
the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to 
Strateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other 
six were Thesmothetm, judges, heads of the department of justice. 
Cir. 621. Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the consti- 
tution, only reform of the criminal law, and the law relating 
to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of the death 
penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as the "Law of 
Draco, written with blood." 
624? Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his 
father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- 
lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon Megacles, 
of the family of the Alcmceonida?, and his followers were put to 

1 Concerning the date of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Sicilien*, I. 
381 eqq. 

2 According to Duncker, Gesch. des Altherth., and Curtius, I. 240. Ac- 
cording to the older but very doubtful assumption, 685-668. 

s Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I. 200. 



52 Ancient History. B. c. 

death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account 
of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Re- 
ligious purification of Athens by Epimemdes of Cnossus. 
Solon, of the family of the Nelidse, gained great influence by 

the recapture of Salamis, which had been taken by the Megarseans, 

and through his share in the 

600-590. x First sacred war against Crisa and Cirrha, whose in- 
habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The 
Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the 
inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the 
Pythian Apollo. 
Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the 

nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three 

parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain (ol e« rod 7reSiov), the 

Supatridce. 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts (Sta/cptot). 

3. The inhabitants of the coast (wdpa\oi), a well-to-do middle class. 

594. Solon, while Archon Eponymus, being authorized 
by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- 
racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the 
Seisachtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts 
secured by mortgage were reduced about 27% by the intro- 
duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Eubcean 
talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; 
personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines 
as yet unpaid were remitted. Amnesty for all who had been 
deprived of their political rights (^rifioi). Return of the 
Alcmseonidse. 

The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established 
for the citizens (ttoAitcu) only. Excluded from all political rights 
were: 1. The metceci (ijl£toikoi, foreigners not citizens, but living in 
Athens under protection of the government), who were regarded 
in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron 
(irpoa-TaTTis) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The 
slaves (SovAoi). 

The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. 
In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated 
at 90,000, the metceci at 45,000, the slaves at 360,000. So that in 
the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed 
a small minority of the population. 2 

Division of all citizens, for purposes of military service and the 
exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received 
from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of 
any kind. The unit of measure was the medimnus (52.53 liter), for 
grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive 
oil. The following four classes were formed: — 

1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 
500 medimni and metretes. 

1 According; to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ac- 
cepted was 596-586. 

2 Cf. Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. 



b. c. Greeks. 53 

2. Knights (linre?s), yield of estates 300-500 medimni. 

3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their land with one span of mules), 
yield of estates at least 150 medimni. 

4. Thetes, comprising all who owned land yielding less than 150 
medimni, or possessed no land, but were either day laborers in the 
country, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. 

Taxation consisted in the duty of the citizens, as arranged in these 
four classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- 
tary service. The members of the first three classes served as hoplitez 
(6ir\trai), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of the first two classes 
served also in case of need as cavalry, furnishing their own horses . 
while members of the first class furnished ships for the fleet at their 
own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrarise ; 
the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or 
upon the fleet, only to defend the country from invasion. There was 
no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without 
pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by 
the yield of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- 
tax laid on the metoeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary 
taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes 
described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. 

After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first 
class; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (fiovAr)) 
of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward 
open to all citizens of the first three classes over thirty years old. The 
popular assembly (iKKArjaia) consisted of all citizens over twenty years 
old. 

The Areopagus (from "Apeios irdyos, 1 Hill of Ares, or Mars), the an- 
cient court which had jurisdiction over murder and arson, and a general 
supervision over the entire administration of the state, was, after this 
time, composed of archons who had retired from office. Legal mat- 
ters were adjusted by the heliasts (yKuurrai, so called from the halls, 
•tjAiaia, where they sat), bodies having something of the nature of both 
judge and jury, and consisting of citizens over thirty years old, chosen 
by the thesmothetae, out of a list of 6000 citizens which was formed 
by lot. 

This timocratic constitution of Solon paved the way from aristocracy 
to democracy. In itself it was essentially conservative, since the 
larger landed estates were nearly all in the hands of the nobles. 
Solon also established a code of laws for regulating the entire civil 
life, which was not completed until later. 

Solon left Athens for ten years. Travels in eastern Asia, Crete, 
and Egypt. New party divisions in Athens. The nobles were led 
by Lycurgus; the middle class by the Alcmseonid Megdcles; the poorer 
classes by Pisistrdtus, who, in spite of the opposition of Solon, who 
had returned to Athens and was now an old man, constantly gained 
new supporters, and finally made himself master of the Acropolis. 

1 The hill only was so called by the ancients. Tne court was known as rj lv 

'Apetoi ;ra-ya> (Sovkr\. 



54 Ancient History. b. c. 

560-527. Pisistratus (ncto-io-rpaTos), tyrant of Athens. 

Emigration of Athenian nobles, nnder Miltiades the elder, to the 
Thracian Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asia 
Minor. Conversation with Croesus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died 
(559) at Soli, in Cyprus (?). 

Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti- 
tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should 
always choose archons who suited him. Driven out by a coalition 
of the nobles and the moderates, 559, he returned five years later 
(554). A second time exiled in 552, he again regained his power 
after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- 
tion from 541 to 527. New emigration of noble families, particu- 
larly that of the Alcmceonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government 
until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to his 
son, 

527-510. Hippias ('lirirlas), under whom 

519. Platcece seceded from the Boeotian League and entered into 
alliance with Athens. The Boeotians were defeated by the 
Athenians. Hippias conducted the government after the man- 
ner of his father, until his brother, Hipparchus, was murdered 
by Harmodius ('Ap^Sios) and Aristoglton (^ApicnoyzlTcav) in 514. 
(See Thucydides, VI. 54-59, where he criticises the traditional 
tale of Harmodius and Aristoglton.) Hippias took a cruel 
revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis- 
thenes at the head of the Alcmceonidce) in connection with a 
Spartan army under Cleomenes. He took refuge with Darius, 
king of Persia. 

509- Reforms of Clisthenes (KAeto-fleV^s), son of Mega- 
cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of Sicyon. 

This was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform 
as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but 
only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- 
ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- 
ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonship 
was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the 
council to the first three classes. 

With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- 
mseonidse, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian 
tribes (cpvAal), Geleontes, Hoplites, Argddeis, ^Egicoreis(-p. 45), which 
Solon had left in existence, were set aside, and there were substituted 
for them ten new tribes, which were political and religious unions. 
These new tribes did not form connected territorial divisions. 1 
Each tribe consisted of ten denies, or local communities, which, how- 
ever, were not contiguous, but were scattered about the country and 
interspersed with denies belonging to other tribes. In all there were 100 
demes, later 174. This arrangement was designed to break up the 
local influence of the aristocracy, and put an end to the old patri- 
archal condition of things, whereby only nobles and large land-owner? 

•^, 1 Duncker, IV. 454; Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 369. 



fe. C. Greeks. 55 

eould hold the position of demarch (Srnxapxos*), the presiding officer of 
a community. 

Henceforward every two denies formed a naucrary, which was ex- 
pected to fit out and man a trireme (a vessel with three banks of 
oars) ; whereas the old division of Attica, made in 682, into 48 rtau- 
craries, had been based on the old politico-religious division into tribes 
and phratries. These phratries ((pparptat, 12), the subdivisions of the old 
tribes (<puAa/), were untouched by the reform of Clisthenes, but they 
were reduced to the condition of religious corporations for keeping 
lists of births, marriages, and deaths, but without political impor- 
tance. 

The council (BouA.77) was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty 
for each tribe ; and each of these sets of fifty presided in the council 
for the tenth part of a year (pry tarty, irpvTaveia) ; the members of 
these presiding committees of fifty were called prytanies. Instead of 
four popular assemblies in a year, as formerly, ten were held hence- 
forward. 

508. The Athenian nobility, headed by Isagaras, with the help of 
a Spartan army under Cleomenes, brought about a short re- 
action. Clisthenes fled; the Acropolis was delivered to the 
Spartans by a treacherous archon. A revolt of the Athenian 
populace compelled Cleomenes to make a disgraceful capit- 
ulation : withdrawal of the Spartans without arms, and sur- 
render of the leaders of the aristocracy. The latter were put 
to death, and Clisthenes was recalled. 
506. An expedition of the Spartans against Athens under their kings, 
Cleomenes and Demeratus, at the head of their Peloponnesian 
allies, was broken up by the sudden withdrawal of the Corin- 
thians and the lack of harmony between the Spartan kings. 
The allies of the Spartans, the Boeotians and the Chalcidians 
from Euboea, were defeated by the Athenians. The latter con- 
quered a part of Euboea, and apportioned 4000 peasant holdings 
among Attic farmers, who retained their Athenian citizenship. 
The Athenian democracy derived an accession of strength from a 
reduction in the powers of the archons. The place of holding the 
popular assembly was changed from the market-place (ayopa), where, 
according to a custom sanctified by its antiquity, the first archon 
presided, to the rocky hill of the Pnyx ; and the duty of presiding 
in the popular assembly and in the council was fixed upon an offi- 
cer (e7rto-Tc{T7js), who was chosen by lot from the pry tarty, for the time 
being, and who was changed every day. This officer also held the 
keys of the Acropolis and of the archives. It is uncertain how far 
Clisthenes had introduced the use of the lot, in selecting state offi- 
cials (of course, only from the numbers of qualified candidates). 
Election of ten Strategi, one from each tribe, each of whom had by 
turns the chief command of the army, which formerly belonged to the 
archon polemarchus. The right of appeal from the decision of the 
thesmothetse to the heliasts, which had been introduced before Solon 
for certain cases, was now extended to all cases. Establishment of 
the ostracism (parpaKKTfjLSs, used until 417), i. e. the power of the 
sovereign popular assembly to decree, by means of a secret ballot, 



56 Ancient History. b. c. 

with bits of "pottery (6<rrpaKa), the banishment of any citizen who en- 
dangered the public liberty, without process of law. 1 

In Peloponnesus, during this period of internal development at 
Athens, Sparta had become the first power. Soon after the first 
Messenian war, an essential increase in the powers of the Ephors 
had taken place (under king Theopompus). About 560, another re- 
form had been accomplished by the Geront Chilon, with the aid and 
religious consecration of Epimenides of Cnossus, which completed the 
aristocratic form of government at Sparta, and gave increased strength 
to the commonwealth. The Ephors received an extraordinary dis- 
ciplinary power over every individual, not excepting even the kings. 
The power of the latter gradually dwindled to a shadow. After the 
victory at Thyrea (549), the power of Argos, which in the seventh 
century had again attained, under King Phidon, a transient increase, 
was broken, and the Argive league was dissolved. The Spartan 
state, which was everywhere the opponent of tyranny and the pro- 
tector of republican-aristocratic governments, became the leader of 
a league of the Peloponnesian states, and claimed the Hegemony over 
all the Hellenic cantons. 

THIRD PERIOD. 

From the beginning of the Persian wars to the loss of inde- 
pendence by the Battle of Cheeronea. 500-338. 

500-449. Persian wars. 

500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks against the Persians (p. 28). 
The assistance rendered them by Athens and Eretria was the 
immediate cause of the attempt of the Persians to subjugate 
European Greece. 

493^479. Attack of the Persians upon the Greeks. 

493 (492 ?). First expedition of the Persians against Greece, 
under Mardonius. 

The land force subdued the coast of Thrace ; the fleet conquered 
the island of Thasos. Alexander, king of Macedonia, submitted volun- 
tarily. The Persian army, surprised by a Thracian tribe, suffered 
great loss; the fleet was for the most part destroyed by a storm off 
the promontory of Athos. Mardonius thereupon decided to return. 

Construction of citadels on the Thracian coast to serve as points 
of support in future campaigns : Byzantium, Sestos, Abdera, received 
Persian garrisons. 

491. The Persian heralds, who required signs of submission (water 
and earth), were sacrilegiously murdered at Sparta and Athens 
The Cyclades and JEgina promised submission to Persia. The 
Athenians received from the Spartans iEginetan hostages. 

490. Second expedition of the Persians against Greece, un- 

1 The ostracism was in no sense a sentence or a juridical decision, but 3 
purely political act of the highest power in the state. 



B. c. Greeks. 57 

der Artaphernes (the young nephew of Darius) and an 
older general, the Mede Datis. 

A fleet of 600 triremes and the same number of transports, with 
100,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry on board, crossed the JSgean sea. 
After destroying the city of Naxos, the Persians landed in Euboea. 
The city of Eretria was stormed, and taken by treachery ; those of 
the inhabitants who were not put to death were sent as prisoners to 
the great king at Susa. By the advice of Hippias (p. 54) the Per- 
sians landed on the east coast of Attica, and encamped in the vicinity 
of Marathon. 

At Athens the entire military power of the city (9-10,000 Hop- 
lites) 1 was called to arms under the ten Strategi of the ten tribes, 
among whom were Aristldes, Themistocles, and Miltiades (the 
younger), who had been recalled from the Chersonese. The Athenians 
crossed the Brilessus and advanced to meet the Persians; they en- 
camped in face of the enemy for nine days in a position strengthened 
by entrenchments, and whence they covered the road to Athens. Re- 
inforced by 1000 Platseans, they attacked the Persians without wait- 
ing for the arrival of the assistance which had been sought from 
Sparta. It is probable that the Persians had at this time embarked a 
portion of their army, especially the cavalry, in order to attempt a 
second landing in the immediate neighborhood of Athens. After 
hard fighting the Athenians defeated the enemy hi the 

490. 12 September. Battle of Marathon, 
under the leadership of Miltiades. 

The plan of the Persians to surprise Athens from the sea was 
prevented by a forced march of the army back to the city. The Per- 
sian fleet returned to Asia Minor. Hippias died in Lemnos. 
489. Ill-considered and unsuccessful attack of Miltiades, who had 
been clothed with unrestricted power as military commander, 
upon Paws. Miltiades, on his return to Athens wounded, was 
brought to trial at the complaint of Xanthippus, and con- 
demned to pay the costs of the expedition, amounting to fifty 
talents, which sum was paid by his son Cimon, after the death 
of his father. 
Aristides and Themistocles were now the leading statesmen at 
Athens. The latter devoted special attention to increase and im- 
provement of the fleet, the necessity of which was proved to the 
Athenians by an unsuccessful war with ^Egina, which occurred at 
this time, and for which they were obliged to hire ships from the 
Corinthians. 2 On the motion of Themistocles, the income from the 
silver works at Laurium were spent upon the fleet, and 20 triremes 
were built every year. 

483. As the growing rivalry between Aristldes and Themistocles 
endangered the commonweal, at the suggestion of the council 
the assembly decided between the two men by the ostracism 
(p. 55). Aristldes was condemned to ten years' exile from 
Athens by more than 6000 votes. 

1 Duncker, Gesch. d.Alterthum, IV. 673. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 246. 

2 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 262. 



58 Ancient History. B. c. 

Themistocles urging the fortification of Piraeus, a strong wall was 
built, the foundations of which are yet visible, which also enclosed 
the small harbors of Munychia and Zea on the southeast of Pirseus. 
Radical reform of the naval department. The naucraries (p. 55), 
which had not been able to furnish all the ships needed by the state, 
since the year 500 B. c, were dissolved, and their place supplied by 
a new arrangement known as the trierarchies. The building of ships 
and the supply of the more essential portions of their equipment were 
undertaken by the state; the completion of the equipment, the repairs, 
and the supplies of the crew, during service, of one ship was assigned 
as a service due the state (Aeirovpyta) to one well-to-do citizen, who 
in return was appointed trierarch, or commander-in-chief of the 
ship. Whereas in the naucraries the expenses of the ships had 
fallen exclusively upon the Pentakosiomedimni (i. e. the large land- 
owners, p. 52), all citizens, whether land-owners or not, whose property 
exceeded a certain standard could be called upon for this purpose, 
and were entitled to the honor of the trierarchy. 1 

481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, 
under Xerxes. 

This expedition, planned by Darius, was carried out by his son 
Xerxes, after extensive preparations. Pisistratus, son of Hippias, 
and Demaratus, the deposed king of Sparta, accompanied Xerxes on 
the expedition. 

Construction of a canal at Acanthus by the force on the fleet 
and the subject Thracians, to avoid the storms about Mt. Athos. 
Bridge over the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, built by 
Phoenician and Egyptian laborers. Erection of large magazines in 
Asia Minor and on the coast of Thracia. 

481. The troops from the eastern and southern parts of the empire 
assembled at Critalla in Cappadocia, whence they were con- 
ducted to Sardes by the king in person. 
480. In the spring departure from Sardes (about 900,000 men). 
March through Mysia. Passage of the Hellespont, lasting 
seven days. March through Thrace and Macedonia. Passage 
of the fleet (more than 1300 triremes, among which were over 
400 Grecian ships from Asia Minor) through the canal at 
Acanthus. 
After the Greeks had given up the plan of defending the pass of 
Tempe, the Persian army traversed Thessaly without opposition. Not 
only the Thessalians, but also the Boeotian cities, with the exception of 
Platmoz and Thespim, sent the king symbols of submission. 

480. July. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Ther- 
mopylee (i. e. warm gates, a pass at the foot of Calli- 
dromus, near hot springs) against the army of Xerxes. 

The Spartan king Leonidas, defended the pass of Thermopylae, 
with about 6000 Hoplites, among whom were 300 Spartiatos, and 
1000 Lacedaemonian Perioeci, against the overwhelming force of the 

1 Boeckh, Public Economy of the Athenians (Lamb's trans.), 359, 695-745. 



B. C 



Greeks. 59 



Persians, while 1000 Phocians guarded the footpath over (Eta. The 
Persians, guided over this path by the traitor Ephialtes, drove back 
the Phocians and attacked the Grecian army in the rear. Leonidas 
ordered the Periceci and the troops of the allies to retire, and died 
a heroic death with his 300 Spartiatse and 700 Thespians, who re- 
fused to leave him. The Thebans, who had fought under Leonidas 
against their will, laid down their arms; part of them were cut down: 
part branded, at the king's command, and sent back to Thebes. At 
the same time 
480- Indecisive sea-fight at Artemisium, 

a promontory and temple at the northern point of Euboea. 
During the first day about 280 Grecian ships, under conduct of the 
Spartan Eurybiades, fought against the Persian fleet, under Achaz- 
menes, which was weakened through losses by storms, and the dis- 
patch of 200 ships around the southern end of Eubcea. Night put an 
end to the indecisive battle. Loss of the 200 Persian ships which 
were sent around Eubcea. 

On the second day the Grecian fleet, reinforced by 53 triremes, 
had a victorious contest with Cilician ships. 

On the third day, also, the battle remained undecided, although 
the Persians attacked with their whole fleet. 

On receipt of the news of the capture of the pass of Thermopylae, 
the Grecian fleet hastened to the Gulf of Salamis. The Pelopon- 
nesian army, having established itself on the isthmus, began the con- 
struction of a wall across the isthmus, instead of coming to the as- 
sistance of the Athenians. 

Xerxes traversed central Greece, without meeting with resistance. 
Locrians and Dorians submitted. He ravaged the land of the Pho- 
cians, the detachment sent to Delphi was, however, driven back, with 
the help of a thunderstorm. Bceotia was treated as a friendly coun- 
try. Thespice and Plato303 alone were destroyed. 

The Athenians abandoned their city, leaving only a garrison in the 
Acropolis. The fortifications of the Piraeus being incomplete, the 
fleet conveyed the old men, women, and children, with all personal 
effects, to Salamis, JEgina, and Argolis, in which latter place the 
Athenian children were provided with schooling at the expense of 
the inhabitants. Return of the exiles permitted. Xerxes entered 
the city, the Acropolis was taken by storm, the temples thereupon 
and the city burned to the ground. 

480- 20 Sept. Naval battle of Salamis. 

The Grecian fleet, now united and strongly reinforced (378 tri- 
remes, 7 fifty-oared vessels), was under the command of the Spartan 
Eurybiades. The Grecians, being through the contrivance of the 
strategus Themistocles, surrounded by the enemy and forced to fight, 
wqii a brilliant victory over the Persian fleet, which still numbered 
750 (?) vessels. The island of Psyttalea, which the Persians had oc- 
cupied, was recaptured by Aristides, who had hastened from iEgina to 
take part in the combat. The Greeks lost 40, the Persians 200, ships. 
The Persian fleet anchored in the bay of Phaleron. Retreat, not 



60 Ancient History. b. g. 

flight, of Xerxes. Mardonius was left in Thessaly with the best part 

of the army (260,000 men). 

480. Nov. Xerxes, after suffering great loss through drought and 

lack of provisions, reached the Hellespont, where he found 

the fleet, which transported the army, the bridge having 

been carried away by storms. 

The Grecian fleet, instead of pursuing the Persians, as Themis- 

tocles wished, laid unsuccessful siege to the city of Andros. The 

Athenians returned to their city, and at once began its reconstruction,, 

479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. 

After Mardonius had in vain offered the Athenians, through 
Alexander of Macedonia, a separate peace with recognition of their 
independence, he entered Attica and advanced on Athens, strength- 
ened by a reinforcement under Artabdzus, and by contingents from 
his allies in northern Greece, Thessalians, Boeotians, a part of the 
Phocians, and the Ar gives. The Athenians, being a second time faith- 
lessly left in the lurch by the Spartans, retired again to Salamis. 
Whatever had been rebuilt in the city, the Persians destroyed. 
Finally the whole Peloponnesian force of 30,000 hoplites and twice 
as many light-armed troops having crossed the isthmus, Mardonius 
retired, and took up a favorable position in Bceotia on the Asopus. 
More than 10,000 Athenians, Platceans, and Thespians joined the Hel- 
lenic army. Pausanias was the leader of the Spartans and of the 
whole force. He commanded the most imposing army that Hellas 
had ever seen. The Hellenes, however, had no cavalry. 

479. Sept. Battle of Plataese. 

After long delay and much marching back and forth, Pausanias, 
who had twice entrusted the most dangerous positions to the Athe- 
nians under the command of Aristides, decided to retreat without 
offering battle; being, however, attacked by Mardonius and com- 
pelled to defend himself, he fought bravely at the head of the Pelo- 
ponnesians, and, being well supported by the Athenians, gained a 
decisive victory. Mardonius fell. Rout of the Persians; their 
camp captured by the Greeks. 

The Grecian army advanced before Thebes; the leaders of the Per- 
sian party were given up, and executed on the isthmus. 

At the beginning of the campaign against Mardonius a Grecian 
fleet under the Spartan king, Leotychidas, — Xanthippus commanding 
the Athenians under him, — had been dispatched to patrol the iEgean 
Sea. At the call of the Samians the fleet sailed for Asia Minor, and 
took the offensive against the Persians. 

479-449. Offensive war of the Grecians against the Persians. 
The Persian admiral, Mardontes, distrusting the Greeks of 
Asia Minor, who were in his fleet, did not venture to accept 
the naval battle offered him near Samos. He beached his 
fleet at the promontory of Mycale, opposite Samos, and en- 
trenched himself. The Grecian marines landed, and utterly 
defeated the Persians in the 



b. c. Greeks. 61 

479. Battle of Mycale 

(on the day of the battle of Platsese ?), captured the camp and 
burned the Persian ships. Several of the island cities, par- 
ticularly Samos, Lesbos, and Chios, and afterwards the Grecian 
coast towns of Asia Minor, joined the Hellenic league. The 
Peloponnesians returned home; the Athenians and Ionians con- 
quered Sestos in the Thracian Chersonese. 
Rebuilding and enlargement of Athens, which, in spite of the ob- 
jection of the Peloponnesians, was surrounded with strong walls. 
(Stratagem of Themistocles.) Completion of the fortification of 
Piraeus, where a large city grew up. 

478 (?). Reform of Aristldes, from which dates the real supremacy 
of the democracy in Athens. The state offices were opened 
to all four classes alike (p. 53). 
Under the command of Pausanias, the united fleet of Peloponne- 
sians, Athenians, and Ionic Greeks of Asia Minor conquered Byzan- 
tium, and acquired a rich booty. The overbearing demeanor of 
Pausanias toward the other members of the league, and the winning 
manner of the Athenian leaders, A ristldes and Cimon, brought it about 
that after the recall of Pausanias by the Ephors 

477 (?). The Hegemony (chief conduct of the war) was 
transferred from Sparta to Athens, and a Hellenic con- 
federacy (symmachy) was formed, the political head of 
which was Athens, and whose religious centre was the 
temple of Apollo in Delos, where the treasury of the 
league was also established. The smaller states contrib- 
ute money only, instead of furnishing contingents of ships. 
Rivalry between Themistocles and Cimon. The supporters of the 
latter procured the ostracism of Themistocles. He retired to Argos. 
While there suspicion attached to him of being implicated in the 
treasonable intrigues of Pausanias. The latter, threatened with im- 
prisonment by the Ephors, took refuge in the temple of Athena at 
Sparta, and there died of starvation (467?). Themistocles, driven 
from Argos, went to Corcyra, thence to Epirus, and finally to Susa, 
where he offered the Persian monarch his services against his native 
land. Artaxerxes I. (p. 28) gave him a princely domain in Asia 
Minor, where he died (460). 

After the retirement of Aristides from political life, and his death, 
which occurred soon after (467 ?), Cimon became* the leader of the 
Athenian commonwealth. He began the construction of the two long 
walls (tu <tk4\7i), one of which connected the city with Piraeus, and the 
other with Phaleron. 1 

Cimon, the victorious leader of the fleet of the league, captured 
those places on the Thracian coast which were still occupied by the 
Persians (Ei'on, 469) ; chastised the pirates of Scyra, and carried the 
bones of Theseus to Athens; captured Naxos, which had revolted 

1 Oncken (Athen u. Bellas, I. 72) holds that the walls were begun during 
the banishment of Cimon; so also Ad. Schmidt, Das perikleische, Zeitalter, 
I. 57, who, however, places the banishment of Cimon in 461. 



62 Ancient History. b. c. 

from the league, and now lost its independence, as punishment (467); 
defeated the fleet and army of the Persians in the 

465. Battle of the Eurymedon, 

in Pamphylia. Cimon conquered the Chersonese and punished 

the island of Thasos, which had seceded from the confederacy. 
464. Earthquakes in Sparta; insurrection of the Laconian helots, 

a portion of whom joined the Messenian helots and occupied 

Ithome. 

464-456. Third Messenian war, 

in which the Spartans were forced to implore the help of 

Athens, which was furnished at the instance of Cimon, but was 

afterwards sent back by the suspicious Spartans (461). The 

Athenians, offended, allied themselves with the Ar gives, the 

principal enemies of the Spartans in the Peloponnesus. 

In Athens, rivalry between Cimon, head of the aristocratic party, 

and Pericles, the son of Xanthippus, leader of the democracy. The 

latter party succeeded in establishing the payment of citizens serving 

in the army, or as judges, and the bestowal of alms of the state upon 

the poor at festivals out of the public treasury. The beginning of 

the decline of the Athenian democracy. 

The Athenians sent aid to the Egyptian rebel Inaros (p. 28) against 
the Persians. The expedition came to an unfortunate end, the Athe- 
nian army being surrounded on one of the islands of the Nile, and 
compelled to surrender. 

460. The law of Ephialtes took from the court of Areopagus the cen- 
sorship over the state, which had been intrusted to it by Solon 
(p. 53), and limited its sphere of action to its judicial powers. 
459. After this democratic victory Cimon was banished from Athens 
by ostracism. 
About this time (between 460 and 454), the treasury of the con- 
federacy was transferred from Delos to the Acropolis of Athens. 
The contributions of the members of the league thereby acquired the 
character of a tribute paid to the Athenians.. The confederates be- 
came for the most part subjects of Athens, which became the capital 
of a great coast and island empire. 1 

459. Megara, threatened by Corinth, iEgina and Epidaurus, was 
placed under the protection of the Athenians, who connected 
Megara with its port, Niscea, by long walls. 
458. The Athenians, after suffering a defeat in Argolis, gained two 
battles at sea over the allied Corinthians, Epidaurians, and 
iEginetans ; blockaded iEgina, and energetically defended Meg- 
ara. This great development of power, on the part of Athens, 
caused a 

457-445. War of the Spartans and Boeotians against 
Athens. 
A Spartan army under Nicomedes, the guardian of the young king, 
Plistoanax, had been sent to Central Greece to protect the Dorian 

1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 378. 



B. C. Greeks. 63 

tetrapolis against the attacks of the Phocians, who were compelled 
to give up their conquests. The Spartan army, cut off from a return 
over the isthmus by the Athenians, retired to Bceotia, where it assisted 
the Boeotians against Athens. 

457. Battle of Tanagra, a Spartan victory, which they neglected 
to utilize. They concluded an armistice with Athens and re- 
turned to Sparta. 
Very soon the Athenians again invaded Bceotia, defeated the 
Thebans at CEnophyta (456), and replaced the aristocratic govern- 
ments in most cities by democratic, which were friendly towards 
Athens. The Phocians and Opuntian Locrians joined Athens. 
-2Bgina was forced to surrender to the Athenians after a long siege, 
gave up its ships of war, and became tributary (456). The Athenians 
laid waste the coasts of Laconia, and conveyed the Messenians, whom 
the Spartans had granted a free departure from Ithome, to Naupactus 
(p. 40), where they formed a settlement. Reconciliation between 
Pericles and Cimon; the latter recalled after an exile of nearly five 
years (454). The influence of Cimon brought about an 
451 (?). Armistice between Athens and Sparta for five years, and 
a new naval expedition against the Persians. Cimon conducted 
200 ships to Cyprus. He died during the siege of Citium. 
After his death his fleet gained a brilliant victory over the 
Persian (i. e. Phoenician, Cilician) fleet, and the hostile troops 
on the land in the double 
449. Battle of Salamis (laXafxts) in Cyprus. 

New party struggles in the Boeotian cities. The aristocrats, who 
had been driven out by the Athenians, returned; the Athenians, called 
to the assistance of the democrats, were defeated at Coronea (447). 
The old aristocratic constitutions were restored, not only in Bceotia 
but also in Locris, Phocis, and Megara, which became free from 
the supremacy of Athens. After the expiration of the five years' 
armistice the Spartans sent an army under their young king, Plis- 
toanax, to Attica, in order to assist the Eubceans in a revolt against 
the Athenians. Pericles bribed the advisers of the young king 
and secured the withdrawal of the army; then hastening back to 
Eubcea with an Athenian army, he subdued the island anew (446). 
Second assignment of Euboean lands to Athenian citizens. 

445. Thirty years' peace between Athens and Sparta. By 
this peace, or more properly armistice, the Peloponnesian 
and Athenian leagues acknowledged themselves to be two 
distinct and independent confederacies. 
About this time, or at least after the death of Cimon, negotiations 
for peace were opened between Athens and Persia, and an Athenian 
embassy under Callias was sent to Susa. No formal peace, however, 
was concluded, but peaceable intercourse under a tacit recognition of 
existing political relations gradually took the place of a state of war. 
The Athenians gave up Cyprus and sent the Egyptian rebels no 
further aid. They continued to control the iEgean Sea, and the 
Grecian coast towns of Asia Minor were mostly their allies or sub- 
jects, — in any case, practically free from the Persian sceptre. The 



64 Ancient History. B. c. 

so-called peace of Cimon, wherein the king of Persia is said to have 
formally acknowledged the independence of the Greeks of Asia 
Minor, and promised to send no more ships of war into the iEgean, 
would seem to be the invention of a later time. 1 

444. At Athens Thucydides (the son of Melasias, not the historian 
of the same name), became the leader of the aristocratic 
party. His party attempted to secure the ostracism of Peri- 
cles, but when the votes were counted it was found that 
Thucydides was banished. 

444-429. Athens under the administration of Pericles, 

who, although never archon, conducted the government of the 
city by his influence in the assembly, and in his official capac- 
ity as strategics, as superintendent of the finances (Tamias or 
Epimeletes), and as superintendent of public buildings and 
other public works. 
440-439. Revolt and subjugation of Samos. 

443. Foundation of Thurii in Southern Italy on the ruins of Sybaris. 
437. Foundation of Amphipolis on the Strymon. Completion of the 
fortifications of Athens by the construction of a third long wall, 
parallel with the first leading to the Piraeus (p. 61). Mag- 
nificent buildings, especially on the Acropolis : the Hall of the 
Caryatides in the Erechtheion, the Propylcea, the Parthenon, or 
Hecatompedon, the bronze statue of Athena Promachos, a co- 
lossal figure over 50 feet high. 
By the Age of Pericles is commonly understood the whole time 
of his political activity (465-429), or even the entire period from the 
Persian expeditions to the Peloponnesian war. This was the most 
brilliant epoch in the history of Athens, not only in its political 

Sower, its trade and commerce, but in art and literature. The tragic 
ramatists: iEschylus, 526-455; Sophocles, 496-405; Euripides, 
480-406; later the comic dramatist, Aristophanes 456 (?)-380? 
The historians: Herodotos of Halicarnassus, 484-424?; Thucy- 
dides, 470-400 ? The sculptor: Phidias; the architects Ictinus, 
Callicrates, and Mnesicles ; the painter Polygnotus. The phi- 
losophers, Socrates, 469-399, Zeno of Elea, Anaxagoras, Prota- 
goras. Aspasia of Miletus. 

431-404. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

Causes: Envy of the Dorian confederacy at the power of Athens, 
the ambition of the Athenians, and the discontent of those of their 
allies who had been reduced to subjects. 

Immediate causes: 1. The interference of Athens in the war 
between Corcyra and Corinth (435-432), which had broken out con- 
cerning Epidamnus (afterwards Dyrrhachiurri) in Illyria, a colony of 
Corcyra. The democrats of Epidamnus, hard pressed by the exiled 
nobles in alliance with Illyrian barbarians, implored aid from their 

1 Cf. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 456 (after Dahlmann and Krtiger). 
Other writers consider that a treaty was concluded. Cf. Hiecke, De Pace 
Cimnnica, 1863. E. Miiller, Uher den cimon Frieden, 1866-1869. Ad. 
Schmidt, Das perikleische ZeitalUr. 



B. c. Greeks. 65 

mother city Corcyra in vain, but obtained help from Corinth, the 
mother city of Corcyra. Enraged at this, the Corcyrseans took sides 
with the aristocracy of Epidamnus, defeated the Corinthians at 
Actium (434), and captured Epidamnus. Corinth and Corcyra vied 
with one another for help from Athens. The Athenians decided in 
favor of Corcyra, and took part at first with 10, afterwards with 30, 
ships in the battle of Sybota (432), between the Corinthians and Cor- 
cyrseans, wherein the Corinthians, at first victorious, afterwards retired 
before the Athenians. 2. The inhabitants of Potidcea, a Corinthian 
colony on the peninsula of Chalcidice, revolted from the Athenian 
league (432), and received support from Corinth. The Corinthians 
were, however, defeated by the Athenians at Olynthus, and Potidsea 
was surrounded and besieged. 

The Corinthians, supported by the Megareans, who (since 432 ?) 
had been excluded from all Attic harbors and markets, and by the 
iEginetans, entered a complaint against the Athenians at Sparta. 
The popular assembly at Sparta having voted that the Athenians had 
broken the treaty, the Peloponnesian Congress resolved on preparation 
for war. 

Military power of both parties : Achaia and Argos remained 
neutral at first. The Peloponnesians were joined by the Megareans, 
Boeotians, Opuntian Locrians, Phocians. Independent allies of the 
Athenians: Platcece, Corcyra, Zacynthus, Chios, Lesbos, Thessalians, 
Acarnanians. The Athenian league, including almost all the islands 
and coasts of the archipelago and the regions beyond, had been 
transformed, by naval stations and garrisons, into an extensive em- 
pire. 

431. The war 1 began with the surprise of Plataese by the Thebans. 
The gates were opened by treachery; but the Thebans were 
driven out of the city ; many were captured or cruelly slaugh- 
tered. 
431-425. Five invasions of Attica by the Peloponnesians, 4 un- 
der the Spartan king A rchidamus, the 5th under Agis. While 
the Athenian fleet laid waste the coasts of Peloponnesus, the 
inhabitants of Attica took refuge in Athens, Piraeus, or en- 
camped between the long walls. The iEginetans were en- 
tirely driven away from their island by the Athenians, and their 
land divided among Athenian citizens. The country around 
Megara was harried by an Athenian army. 
430. A pestilence resembling the plague broke out at Athens, of 
which 

429. Pericles died. 

In the spring of this year capture of Potidcea. Cleon 2 came for- 
ward as the leader of the democratic party; the head of the aris- 
tocratic party was Nicias. 

1 This first period of the Peloponnesian war, down to the peace of Nicias 
(421), commonly known as the Archidamian war, is called by Thucydides (V. 

25) 6 &£KaeTY)<; 7r6AejU.o?. 

2 Not a tanner, but an owner of manufactories, who carried on his business 
by means of slaves. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, III. 61. 

5 



G6 Ancient History. b. cu 

428. Revolt of Mytilene in Lesbos (Methymna remained faithful to 
the Athenians). Before the arrival of the help promised by 

427. the Peloponnesians, Mytilene was compelled to surrender by 
the Athenians under Paches. The Athenian assembly decreed 
that all citizens of Mytilene should be put to death, a sentence 
which on the following day was restricted to the aristocrats. 
More than a thousand were slain, the city was razed, and the 
land on the island, with the exception of the territory of Meth- 
ymna, divided among Athenian citizens. 

427. Platcece forced to surrender. The survivors of its brave defenders, 
225 in number, were executed by the Spartans. Bloody party 
contests in Corcyra, where victory at last remained with the 
democrats. Successful expedition of the Athenians under De- 
mosthenes to assist the Acarnanians against the Ambraciots, 
who received help from the Peloponnesians. 

425. Demosthenes landed in Messenia and fortified the ruined fortress 
of Pylos. The Spartans under Brasidas occupied the island of 
Sphacteria, opposite Pylos. The Athenian fleet under Nicias 
cut off their retreat. Spartan envoys in Athens offered peace, 
but their proposals were rejected at the instigation of Cleon, 
who, being appointed by the people strategus in place of Nicias, 
took Sphacteria by storm, and brought 292 of the enemy, among 
whom were 120 Spartiatce, with him to Athens. The Athenians 
threatened to put the prisoners to death whenever the Pelo- 
ponnesians should invade Attica again. 

424. The island of Cythera occupied by the Athenians. From 
Cythera and from Pylos, to which latter place the Athenians 
conveyed Messenians from Naupactus, the Laconian territory 
was harassed incessantly. The Athenians invaded Boeotia, but 
were defeated by the Boeotians at Delium (Socrates, Alcibiades). 
Expedition of the Spartans under Brasidas by land to Mace- 
donia and Thrace, with the design of putting an end to the su- 
premacy of the Athenians there. Revolt of several towns from 
Athens; Brasidas captured A mphipolis, on account of which the 
Athenian general Thucydides (the historian), who lay with a 
squadron at Thasos, was banished. The Athenians sent Cleon 
to Thrace. Cleon was defeated in the 

422. Battle of Amphipolis 

by Brasidas, and fell during the flight. Brasidas died of his 
wounds. 

421. Peace of Nicias, 

concluded for fifty years. Both sides restored conquests and pris- 
oners, a condition which was, however, but imperfectly executed. Al- 
though Sparta even entered into alliance with Athens to force this 
peace upon their confederates, the war broke out again in three years, 
when Alcibiades persuaded the Athenians to join the league which 
Argos had formed with several Peloponnesian states, in order to op- 
pose the oppressive ascendancy of Sparta. The united Ar gives and 
Athenians were defeated in the 



b. c. Greeks. 67 

418. Battle of Mantinea. 

By this victory the Spartans regained their supremacy in Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

416. The Athenians captured Melos and put all the citizens to death. 

415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse, 

Suggested by the request of Egesta for help against Selinus and 
Syracuse (Hermocrates), which was granted by the advice of Alci- 
biades. A fleet of 134 triremes, carrying 36,000 men inclusive of 
sailors, among which number were 5100 hoplites, 1 sailed for Sicily 
under Alcibiddes, Nicias, and Lamdchus. After the occupation of 
Naxos and Catana, Alcibiades was recalled to answer to a charge of 
participation in a sacrilege (mutilation of the Hermoz, ridiculing the 
Eleusinian mysteries). He went to Argos, was condemned to death 
in his absence, and his property was confiscated. Seeking revenge on 
his enemies, he forthwith went over to the side of Sparta. 
414. Nicias gained a victory before Syracuse and besieged the city 
with some success. Death of Lamdchus. At the advice of 
Alcibiades, the Spartans sent a small fleet under Gylippus to 
the assistance of Syracuse. The Athenians attacked the city 
413. by storm, and were repulsed. They suffered from sickness and 
want. Reinforced by 73 triremes and 5000 hoplites under 
Demosthenes, they were nevertheless defeated in two naval bat- 
tles in the harbor of Syracuse ; their fleet was surrounded ; the 
413. remnants of their army on the retreat by land (on the Assina- 
Sept. rus) were hi part cut to pieces, in part captured. Nicias and 
Demosthenes were executed in Syracuse; 7000 prisoners were, 
sent to the quarries (\aro/j.iai). 
413. By the advice of Alcibiades the Spartans occupied and forti- 
March. fled the village of Decelea in Attica. The last nine years of 
the Peloponnesian war are therefore known as the 

413-404. Decelean war. 

The Spartans made forays from Decelea into all parts of 

Attica. 
Distress of the Athenians, flight of slaves, financial difficulties of 
the government. The influence of the aristocratic party revived. 
Establishment of a new board of ten councillors (irpofiovXoi) . 2 Regu- 
lation of the finances. Renewed preparations for war. Alcibiades 
induced Chios, Erythraz, Clazomence, and Miletus to revolt. He was in- 
strumental in forming an alliance between the Spartans, who declared 
their willingness to abandon to the Persian king all Greek cities for- 
merly subject to him, and the Persian satrap, Tissaphernes, who paid 
a subsidy to the Spartans. A new Athenian fleet appeared off the 
coast of Asia Minor and defeated 
412. the Peloponnesian fleet near Miletus, but was prevented from 

taking the city by a squadron from Syracuse. The Athenian 

fleet, increased to 104 ships, anchored off Samos. Alcibiades, 

1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, III. 357. 

2 Their functions are a matter of dispute. Cf. Grote, History of Greece. 
VII. 362. S J * 



68 Ancient History. b. c. 

being suspected and maligned by the Spartans, went to Tissa- 
phernes, over whom he soon exercised great influence. At the 
same time he intrigued with the oligarchs in the Athenian 
army, whom, however, he only kept in suspense and finally 
deceived. In the mean time 
411. the oligarchs overthrew the democratic constitution at 
March. Athens by a coup d'etat. A new oligarchical council of 400 
citizens was established ; the popular assembly was limited to 
5000 members; the payment of all state salaries, with the ex- 
ception of the pay of citizens serving in the army, was abol- 
ished. The oligarchy entered upon negotiations for peace 
with Sparta, and endeavored to break up the new order of 
things by executions and banishments. Their rule, however, 
was of short duration. The army before Samos refused to rec- 
ognize the alteration of the constitution; elected new leaders 
(Thrasybulus) and recalled Alcibiades, who assumed com- 
mand, but refused to lead the fleet against the oligarchs in 
Athens, and insisted that it should remain in the face of the 
enemy. At Athens the oligarchical rule of the new council of 
400 was broken after it had lasted four months without direct 
interference on the part of the army; the old council of 500 
was reestablished; the popular assembly remained limited to 
5000 members (until 410?). The abolition of salaries was 
not repealed. 
The Spartans broke off all connection with Tissaphernes, and en- 
tered into alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia. 

The Athenians under Thrasybulus defeated the Peloponnesian fleet 
under Mindarus and Pharnabazus in the 

411. Sea-fight at the promontory of Cynossema, near Abydos. 
July. Three months later Alcibiades defeated the Peloponnesians 

in a 
411. Second sea-fight at Abydos. 

Alcibiades, taken prisoner by Tissaphernes, soon escaped, as- 
sumed command of the Athenian fleet again, and annihilated 
the Peloponnesian fleet in the 

410. Battle of Cyzicus, 

Feb. where he also gained a brilliant victory over the enemy after 
he had escaped to the land. Having subdued the coasts of the 

409. Hellespont and Propontis, and captured Byzantium, 

408. Alcibiades returned to Athens in triumph. 

June. The sentence of Alcibiades was repealed, and he was ap- 
pointed commander by land and sea, with unlimited power. 
He guarded with the army the festal procession to Eleusis, 
which had been for a long time discontinued. Alcibiades con- 
ducted the Athenian fleet to Asia Minor. The Spartan, Ly- 
sander, had in the mean time assumed the command here, and 
the brother of the future king of Persia, Artaxerxes II, the 
younger Cyrus (son of Darius II.), a friend of the Spartans, had 
become satrap of Asia Minor. While Alcibiades was engaged 
on a foraging expedition in the country around Phocaia, the 



b. c. Greeks. 69 

Athenian fleet was involved by the junior commanders in an 
engagement, and defeated by Lysander in the 
407. Battle of Notium, in the gulf of Ephesus. 

On account of this misfortune, Alcibiades was deposed from 
his command. He retired to the Hellespont, and died in 404. 
The new Spartan admiral Callicratides, surrounded the Athenian 
fleet under Conon at Mytilene. The Athenians with the greatest ex- 
ertions fitted out a new fleet, which hastened to the aid of Conon. 
The united Athenian fleet completely defeated the Peloponnesians in 
the great 

406. Battle of Arginusae, 

Sept. (at 'Apywovacu, small islands off the coast of Asia Minor, east 
of Lesbos). Six of the victorious generals were sentenced to 
death in Athens for having abandoned shipwrecked troops in a 
storm and not buried the bodies, and were actually executed. 

Lysander, again appointed admiral by the Spartans, defeated and 
annihilated the Athenian fleet in the 

405. Battle of iEgospotami (Alybs irora/xoi, goat river), opposite 
Aug. ? Lampsacus. Conon escaped with eight ships. Slaughter of 
3000 Athenian prisoners. Lysander, having first completely 
destroyed the Athenian power on the coasts and islands, and 
everywhere established oligarchical constitutions, appeared with 
the Peloponnesian fleet before Pirseus, while the Peloponnesian 
army enclosed Athens on the land side. Starvation caused 
the 
404. Surrender of Athens and end of the war. 
April. The walls of Piraeus, and the long walls between the city 
and the harbors, were torn down. All ships of war but twelve 
were delivered to the enemy. The democracy was overthrown, 
and the government entrusted to thirty men of the oligarchical 
party. 
404-371. Second Hegemony of the Spartans. 
404-403. Government of the so-called Thirty Tyrants, of whom 
the best known is Critias, at Athens. 
The Thirty, instead of forming a new constitution, endeavored to 
secure the permanent control of the state, and to strengthen their 
power by receiving a Spartan garrison in the Acropolis, and by numer- 
ous executions. At last, one of the Thirty, Theramenes, was put to 
death at the instance of Critias. Thrasybulus assembled the demo- 
cratic fugitives in Phyle, defeated the troops of the Thirty, and seized 
Piraeus ; Critias was slain. Ten more moderate oligarchs took the 
place of the Thirty. Through the mediation of Pausanias, king of 
Sparta, an understanding was reached between Thrasybulus and the 
oligarchs in Athens. The remainder of the Thirty were put to death. 
General amnesty. Reestablishment of a moderate democracy. The 
government was rearranged by the revision of the laws made by 
Euclldes (403). 

401-400. Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon (p. 29). 
399. Socrates (469-399) executed in Athens by poison. His 
scholar, Plato (427-348). 



70 Ancient History. B. c. 

399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. The 
Persian satrap, Tissaphernes, attempted to punish the Greek 
cities of Asia Minor for their share in the expedition of the 
younger Cyrus. The Spartans came to the aid of the cities, 
at first under Thibron, then under Dercyllldas, finally under 
Agesilaus. The latter forced his way into Asia and defeated 
Tissaphernes, who was executed by command of his successor, 
Tithraustes. Persian gold produced the 

395-387. Corinthian war against Sparta, whose harmosts (ap/xoa-Tai, 
governors) had made themselves universally hated. Coalition 
of Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, joined by Athens. The Spartan 

395. Lysander fell at Haliartus in Bceotia, in battle with the 
allies. The Lacedaemonian fleet was defeated in the 

394. Battle of Cnidus by the Athenian Conon and the Persian 
satrap Pharnabazus. The Spartan harmosts were driven from 
the Grecian cities of Asia Minor. Agesilaus was recalled, 
traversed Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, and defeated the 
allies in the 

394. Battle of Coronea in western Bceotia. Conon and the Per- 
sian satrap Pharnabazus plundered the coasts of Laconia. Conon 
rebuilt the (2) long walls with Persian money. After some 
years of fighting, in which Iphicrdtes and Chabnas were the 
Athenian leaders, the 

337. Peace of Antalcidas was concluded between the Grecian states 
and the Persians. It took its name from the Spartan admiral 
who was sent as envoy to Susa. The Grecian cities of Asia 
Minor and the islands of Clazomenai and Cyprus were abandoned 
to the Persians. The Athenians retained control of Lemnos, 
Imbros, and Scyros only ; all other states and islands were to be 
independent under Spartan and Persian guaranty. 

379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta, caused by the 

occupation of the Cadmea in Thebes (383) by the Spartan 
Phozbldas, who was urged to take this step by the aristocrr-tic 
party in Thebes, as he was conducting an army through Bceotia 
against Olynthus. 
The Theban democrats had taken refuge in Athens, whence under 
Pelopidas they liberated Thebes in 379 and compelled the Spartans 
to withdraw from the Cadmea. Cleombrotus and Agesilaus were dis- 
patched to Bceotia, but met with little success. The Spartans at- 
tempted to surprise Pirseus. This induced the Athenians to enter 
into open alliance with Thebes. They founded a new confederacy 
(symmachy), embracing seventy communities, under more just con- 
ditions than those of the first league (378). The Spartans were re- 
peatedly defeated at sea by the Athenians Chabrias, Phocwn, and 
Timotheus. Peace between Sparta and Athens. Cleombrotus invaded 
Bceotia anew, but in the 

371. Battle of Leuctra, he was defeated by Epaminondas, and 
fell on the field. 

371-362. Hegemony of the Thebans, 



B. c. Greeks. 71 

370. First invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans, under Epam- 
inondas and Pelopidas in order to protect the Arcadians, 
who had revolted from Sparta. Megalopolis founded. An 
attack by the Thebans on Sparta proved unsuccessful, but 
they ravaged Laconia and proclaimed the independence of the 
Messenians. Foundation of Messene. The Athenians came to 
the aid of the Spartans. Retreat of the Thebans. 
369. Second Theban invasion of Peloponnesus. 

367. Third invasion. Sicyon revolted from Sparta. The third in- 
vasion produced a momentary alliance of Achaia and Thebes. 
The Corinthians and Phliasians concluded peace with Thebes. 
In the north the Thebans sent several expeditions against the 
tyrant Alexander of Pherai for the liberation of the Thessalians. 
On the second expedition Pelopidas was captured, but soon set 
free by Eparninondas ; on a new expedition he fell as victor at 
364. Cynocephdlos (nwbs Ke<t>a\ai). 

Fourth expedition of the Thebans against Peloponnesus. Eparn- 
inondas fell in the 

362. Battle of Mantinea as victor against the Spartans and their 
allies (among others 6000 Athenians). 
General peace between the Grecian states, which the Spartans 
alone refused to accept, not being willing to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of Messenia. Agesildus went to Egypt to the assistance of 
the rebels under Tachos, whose fleet was commanded by the Athe- 
nian Chabrias. Agesildus died on the voyage home (360). 

Rise of the Macedonian power. 

359-336. Philip (QlAnrwos), son of Amyntas, had passed three years 
(368-365) in Thebes as a hostage, and had there learned to 
appreciate Grecian culture and military science through intercourse 
with Eparninondas and other men of note. After the death of his 
brother, Perdiccas, he succeeded him as king of the Macedonians at 
the age of twenty-three. Gifted with courage and a clear political 
insight, he strengthened the royal power in a country torn by party 
strife, defended the borders against the restless Pceonian and Illyrian 
tribes, and established a standing army (Phalanx). After he had 
given his own state a firm organization, he turned his attention to 
extending his power along the Thracian coast, and by cunning trick- 
ery encroached on the Athenian territory. He captured Amphipolis 
(357), Pydna, Potid&a, gained possession of the Thracian mines, con- 
cluded an alliance with Olynthus against the Athenians, and founded 
Philippi. 1 

357-355. Social war of the Athenian league against Athens. 
Since 378 Athens had regained much of her former influence. 
It was speedily lost. Chios, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium 
revolted. Chabrias perished in the harbor of Chios. Iphicrates 
and Timotheus, leaders of the Athenians. The latter were 
forced to acknowledge the independence of their former allies. 
355-346. Second Holy War against the Phocians, who 
1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, V. 60. 



72 Ancient History. ■ B. c. 

had been condemned by the Amphictyonic council to pay an 
enormous fine for having used the holy land of Cirrha (p. 52), 
which was consecrated to the Delphian Apollo. The Thebans 
managed to have the collection of the fine entrusted to them- 
selves. 

The Phocians plundered the temple of Delphi and were thereby 
enabled to maintain by means of mercenary troops a long and 
dubious war against Thebans, Locrians, and Thessalians. Leaders of 
the Phocians, Philomelus (f 354), Onomarchus, his brother Phayllus, 
and son Phalcecus. After a long contest Onomarchus fell (352) 
in battle against Philip of Macedonia, whose entrance into central 
Greece was prevented by an Athenian army at Thermopylae. At a 
later period Philip was called upon by the Thebans for assistance 
against the victorious Phalcecus. The Phocians forced by Philip, who 
had subdued the Thessalians and secured Thermopylae, to lay down 
their arms; their cities were deprived of their walls by a decree of 
the Amphictyonic council; the inhabitants were separated into vil- 
lages, and made tributary to the Delphian god. Philip was elected 
to the Amphictyonic council in place of the Phocians. 

Philip, whose power had steadily increased, had been at war with 
Athens since his occupation of Amphipolis. In Athens Demos- 
thenes (383-322), since 351, when he delivered his first Philippic, 
was the soul of an organization of a national opposition to the threat- 
ening power of Macedonia. 1 

Olynthus, having revolted from Philip and made peace with 
Athens, was hard pressed by the king, and begged aid from Athens. 
The three Olynthiac orations of Demosthenes. Before the arrival 
of the Athenian assistance Philip captured Olynthus by treachery 
and destroyed the city (348), as well as a large number of smaller 
places in Chalcidice, and sold the inhabitants as slaves. 

The opponents of Demosthenes, Eubulus and iSs chines (AiVxtj/r/y). 
Formation of a Macedonian party hi Athens. Negotiations with 
Philip, which, in spite of the opposition of Demosthenes, led to the 
shameful peace of Philocrates (346), which left all conquests in the 
hands of the king. A complaint being entered at Athens by Hy- 
perides against Philocrates, he went into exile. Demosthenes lodged 
a complaint against iEschines, who was declared not guilty (343). 

Philip endeavored to extend his power to the Propontis and the 
Pontus Euxinus, and founded numerous colonies in Thrace (JPhilip- 
popolis). The national party at Athens succeeded in forming a 
league of Hellenic states (among others Megara, Achaia, Corinth), 
under the lead of Athens against Philip. The king besieged 
Perinth and Byzantium in vain. The Athenians declared war against 
him, sent a fleet and an army to Byzantium, and forced him to raise 
the siege. Athens derived her supply of grain from the countries on 
the Black Sea; hence her sensitiveness in regard to Byzantium, which 
was the key to the Euxine. 

339-333. Third Holy War (against Amphissa). At the insti- 
gation of Philip (JEschines) the Amphictyonic council had 
decreed the punishment of the Locrians of Amphissa for hav* 
1 A. Schaefer, Demosthenes u. seine Zeit. 



B. c. Greeks. 73 

ing occupied some ground which was consecrated to Apollo. 
Philip, entrusted with the execution of the sentence by the 
Arnphictyons, seized Elatea, which commanded the entrance 
to Bceotia. Great dismay in Greece. The Athenians fitted 
out a fleet and an army at the instance of Demosthenes, who 
went in person to Thebes and induced the Thebans to form an 
alliance with Athens. The allied Thebans and Athenians were 
defeated in the 

338. Battle of Chaeronea (XaipoWia) by Philip, whose son 
Aug. Alexander decided the battle by annihilating the Holy 

Band of the Thebans. Philip punished the Thebans severely and 
placed a garrison in the Cadmea; to the Athenians he granted 
a favorable peace. Peace of Demades. He advanced into 
Peloponnesus, took a large part of her territory from Sparta, 
and divided it among the Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. 

Macedonian Hegemony. At a national assembly at Corinth, 
where the Spartans only did not appear, Philip caused himself 
to be chosen leader (with dictatorial power) of the Grecian 
forces against the Persians (jarrpaT-q^os avTOKparup t<Su 'EAA^cuj/). 
In other respects the Grecian cantons were to retain their 
autonomy; a congress (arwedpiov) at Corinth should adjust 
their differences. 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

Graeco-Macedonian or Hellenistic Epoch down to the Sub- 
jugation of Greece by the Romans (338-146). 

After the murder of Philip, who was on the point of beginning 
the war against Persia, by Pausanias (336), the Macedonian throne 
was occupied by his son, who had been educated by Aristotle 
('Apio-TOTehris, 384^-322), and was now 20 years old. 

336-323. Alexander the Great ('AAe^ai/Spo?). 1 

He forced the Greeks to transfer to him the Hegemony and the 
command against the Persians, quickly reduced the revolted Thracians 
(Triballians), Getce and Illyrians in the north, appeared on the news of 
a Grecian uprising (of the Athenians and Thebans) for the second time 
in Greece, defeated the Thebans, destroyed Thebes with the exception 
of the house of the poet Pindar (522-442 ?), and sold the inhabitants 
as slaves. The terrified Athenians submitted and were pardoned. 
Antipdter left as vicegerent in Macedonia. In 330 revolt of the 
Spartans put down by Antipater in the bloody battle of Megalopolis, 
where 5000 Spartans, under their king Agis II, met a heroic death. 

334. Expedition of Alexander against Persia, 2 
Spring. which was not merely a war of conquest, but also a scien- 



1 Droysen, Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen (Geschichte des 
2 Aufl., 1877, Th. I. with 5 maps by R. Kiepert). Hertzberg, Die asiatischen 
Feldziiffe Alexanders d. Gr., with a map bv H. Kiepert. 

2 For the route, see Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 



74 Ancient History. b. c. 

tific expedition, and a journey of discovery. Alexander crossed 
the Hellespont at Abydos with 30,000 infantry and 5000 cav- 
alry (generals: Perdiccas, Clitus, Parmenio, Hephosstio, Craterus, 
Ptolemozus, Antigonus), defeated the Persian satraps and Mem- 
non, leader of the Grecian mercenaries of Darius, completely 
in the 

334. Battle of the Granicus (a rivulet in Troas). 

Rescue of Alexander by Clitus. Advancing through Mysia and 
Lydia, Alexander proclaimed the freedom of the Grecian cities and 
islands from Persian rule, conquered Miletus and Halicarnassus, and 
traversed Caria and Lycia. Prevented from advancing further by 
the steep mountains, he went northward through the land of the Pisi- 
dians to Phrygia by way of Celcence, Gordium (the Gordian knot), and 
through Cappadocia to Cilicia (bath in the Cydnus). At Tarsus he 
was taken ill, but speedily recovering (potion of the physician Philip- 
pus) he passed through the Syrian Gates to Myriandrus on the coast 
in Syria. Meantime the Persian king, Darius III. (p. 29) had ap- 
proached from the Euphrates with a large army and got to the rear 
of the Macedonians. On hearing this, Alexander turned back from 
Syria and gained a brilliant victory over the Persians in the 
333. Battle of Issus, in Cilicia. 

Nov. An immense number of Persians fell ; the rest were captured 
or scattered. Darius escaped, but his mother, his wives, and 
daughters fell into the hands of the victor. 
In order to completely destroy the Persian power at sea, Alexander 
conquered Syria, Phoenicia, where he besieged Tyre for seven months, 
and Palestine, advanced into Egypt without opposition, and went 
from Pelusium to Memphis. Foundation of Alexandria on a well- 
chosen site. Expedition across the Libyan desert to the oracle of 
Zeus Ammon in the oasis of Sivah. Leaving Egypt, Alexander passed 
through Palestine and Syria by way of Damascus, crossed the Eu- 
phrates at Thapsacus, traversed Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and 
defeated the Persian army, which outnumbered his own 20 times, in 
the 

331. Battle of G-augamela or Arbela (ra "ApfeKa), 
Oct. not far from the ruins of Nineveh. While Darius fled north- 
ward, Alexander crossed the Tigris a second time, entered 
Babylon without resistance, traversed Babylonia, crossed the 
Tigris a third time, captured the capital of Persia, Susa in 
Susiana, and traversed Persis. Capture of Pasargados and 
Persepdlis. 
In the spring of 330 Alexander set out in pursuit of Darius. 
Crossing Media to Ecbatana in the north, he hastened through the 
Caspian gates to Parthia. There, in the neighborhood of Heca- 
tompylos, Darius Codomannus was murdered (330) by the satrap 
Bessus, who fled to Bactria and assumed the royal title. After an 
expedition northward to Hyrcania against the Grecian mercenaries, 
Alexander traversed Parthia toward the east, turned southward, for 
the purpose of punishing an insurrection of satraps, and crossed 
Aria and Drangiana. In Prophthasia discovery of the conspiracy of 



3. c. Greeks. 75 

Philotas, who was condemned by the army and executed ; his father, 
Parmenio, was put to death in Ecbatdna (330) at Alexander's com- 
mand. 

Alexander now crossed Arachosia in a northeasterly direction, 
crossed the Paropanisus (p. 24), or Indian Caucasus, in the spring 
of 329 (foundation of a new Alexandria), advanced into Bactria, pur- 
sued Bessus, who had retreated beyond the Oxus, but was delivered 
to Alexander, and ultimately crucified. Alexander went northward 
as far as the Jaxartes (the modern Sir Daria), where he founded 
Alexandria Eschdta; after some short expeditions against the nomades 
(Scythians) on the other side of the Jaxartes, he remained for some 
time in Sogdiana (murder of Clitus in 328 in Maracanda, now 
Samarcand), after which he went to Bactria. Marriage with Rox- 
ana, daughter of a Bactrian prince. Alexander began at this time 
to adopt oriental clothing and customs. 

327. Expedition of Alexander to India. 

Having once more crossed the Paropanisus, Alexander, after sharp 
fighting with the mountain tribes, reached the Indus, crossed it, and 
entered the Punjab (country of five rivers). In alliance with the 
Indian prince Taxiles, at the 
326. Battle of the Hy daspes ( Vitasta, now Ihelum) 

he defeated Porus, and took him prisoner, treated him, how- 
ever, with magnanimity, and replaced him on his throne as a 
dependent prince. 
Foundation of Niccea and Bucephala. Alexander went eastward 
as far as the Hyphasis (Vipaca, now Vjdsa, or Bey as), when the 
Macedonian soldiers refused to go farther, and compelled him to re- 
turn to the Hy daspes. Construction of a fleet of some 2000 (?) 
ships, which conveyed a portion of the army down the Hydaspes to 
the Acesines (now Chenaub), while the remaining part (with 200 ele- 
phants) marched along the shore. Contest with the Malli. Alex- 
ander's rash bravery and severe wound. After his recovery the fleet 
and army proceeded, and finally reached the junction of the united 
Punjab rivers with the Indus. In 325 army and fleet went down 
the Indus. Craterus returned to Persis with a part of the army by 
the short route to the west. Alexander continued with the fleet and 
land force to the delta of the Indus, where the fleet under Nearchus 
entered the Indian Ocean. Ebb and flow of the tide. Nearchus 
coasted to the west, and discovered the entrance to the Persian Gulf, 
while Alexander conducted the rest of the army through the desert 
of Gedrosia (Baluchistan). After terrible suffering and severe loss 
he arrived in Carmania, met Craterus, and later Nearchus on the 
coast. The latter was dispatched to discover the mouths of the Tigris 
and Euphrates. 

324. Return of Alexander to Persis ; arraignment and punishment 
Jan. of the avaricious and cruel governors who had given up the 
king and his army for lost. Arrival in Susa. Here Alexan- 
der disclosed his great plan of Hellenizing the East, uniting 
the victor and the vanquished into one great nation and found- 
ing a great Macedonian-Persian universal empire on a 



76 Ancient History. b. c 

basis of equality of the Grseco-Macedonian and the Oriental po- 
pulation. Marriage of Alexander with the eldest daughter of 
Darius III. and the youngest sister of Artaxerxes III., while 
Hephcestion took to wife the youngest daughter of Darius III. 
Eighty Macedonian officers married Persian ladies of good 
family, and in consequence of rewards offered by the king, 
10,000 Macedonians took Persian wives. Great plans for open- 
ing commercial relations with other nations and for the con- 
struction of roads on a large scale. Alexander, as successor 
of the Great King, required to be worshipped as a divinity. 
324. A mutiny of the Macedonian army at Opis on the Tigris was 
July, quelled by Alexander's courage and wisdom. The veterans 
were disbanded after receiving great rewards and sent to 
Macedonia under Craterus, while Antipater was to bring new 
troops thence. Death of Hephcestion. Alexander undertook 
the exploration of the Euphrates. 

323. Death of Alexander the Great, 

June, at Babylon, which he had destined for the capital of the new 
empire. 

323-276. "Wars of the Diadochi (successors of Alex- 
ander.) 1 

These long and complicated contests, which broke out immediately 
after the death of Alexander, destroyed the newly founded universal 
empire, but carried on successfully in another way the work which 
Alexander had begun of Hellenizing the east, and spreading Grecian 
language and culture. (Hellenistic language, rj koiu^ 5mAe/cTos), so that 
the new Persian empire which afterwards grew up on this ground 
was very different from the old Persian monarchy, and a worthy 
rival of its great opponent, the empire of Rome. 

Perdiccas became regent in Asia for Alexander's half brother 
Philip Arrhidceus and his posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander. An- 
tipater and Craterus shared the regency of the west. The other 
generals received lieutenancies : Ptolemaeus, Egypt ; Antigonus, 
Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes, Alexander's secretary, Pa- 
phlygonia and Cappadocia, which however he had first to subdue; 
Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the Hellespont. The plan 
of Perdiccas, who married Alexander's sister, to make himself king, 
caused a league of the other generals against him. Perdiccas was 
murdered by his own troops while on an expedition against Ptolemaeus 
(321). The new regent, Antipater, made a new assignment of the 
lieutenancies, wherein Seleucus obtained the satrapy of Babylon. 
After the death of Antipater (319) a war followed between his son 
Cassander, and the aged Polysperchon over the regency. Antigonus, 
in league with Cassander, was victorious in Asia over Eumenes, who 
was betrayed by his own soldiers and whom he executed, while Cas- 
sander was victorious in Europe (316). Lysimachus made himself 
master of the lieutenancy of Thrace. 

Antigonus wishing to bring the whole empire under his sceptre, a 

1 Droysen, Geschlchle des Ilellenismus, 2 Ed. Pt. 2 u. 3, 1877, 78 



B. C. 



Greeks. 77 



315-301. war broke out between Antigonus and the other 
generals, 

in the course of which Antigonus and his son Demetrius 

Poliorcetes (UoXiopK-nriis) assumed the royal title (306). 

Their example was followed by Seleucus, Lysimachus, Cassander. 

During this period, a time abounding in horrors, every member 

of the royal family of Alexander perished, mostly by murder. 

His ambitious and cruel mother Olympias was condemned to 

death at the instance of Cassander, and stoned by the relatives 

of her own victims. 
After a long contest attended with varying success, the war against 
Antigonus was ended by the 
301. Battle of Ipsus ("tyos in Phrygia). 

Antigonus fell, his son Demetrius fled and led for many years 

an adventurous life as a pirate. 
In Europe the war still lasted. After the death of Cassander (297), 
his two sons quarreled about the succession. Demetrius took the 
opportunity to seize the supreme power in Macedonia and Greece, 
lie lost his power indeed through arrogance and desire for conquest 
after a reign of seven years, but his son Antigonus Gonatas after a 
changeful career gained permanent possession of Macedonia (277). 

Thus after many divisions and the formation of many sovereignties 
of but short duration, there grew up out of the Macedonian-Persian 
universal empire, five monarchies, of decidedly Hellenistic character, 
in which Greek was the language of the court and the government, 
of inscriptions and coinage, and of the educated classes, and in some 
of which Grecian art, literature and learning reached a high develop- 
ment. Nevertheless, these five monarchies, from their formation to 
their fall, bore the imprint of the deepest moral decay. These five 
states, to which we must add the republic of Rhodes and the Grecian 
Cantons, were : 

1. Egypt under the Ptolemies or Lagidse with its capital 

at Alexandria. 

Ptolemceus I. (323-285), called Soter, i. e. saviour, because he sent 
aid to the Rhodians, or Lagi, i. e. son of Lagus, founder of the king- 
dom. Ptolemceus II. (285-247) called Philadelphus from being the 
husband of his sister Arsinoe; foundation of the museum with the Alex- 
andrine library. Ptolemceus III. (247-221), called Euergetes, i. e. 
benefactor, by the priests, temporary conquest of Caria, Lycia, Cilicia, 
Cyprus. Ptolemceus IV., Philopater (221-205), decline of the power 
of the monarchy. Ptolemceus V., Epiphdnes (205-181) ; Egypt be- 
comes dependent on the Romans. 

2. Syria, under the Seleucidse. Capital at first Seleucia, 

on the Tigris, afterwards Antiochia on the Orontes. 

Seleucus I. Nicator (312-281), founder of the kingdom. Antiochus 
I. Soter (281-261). Antiochus II. Theos (261-246). Seleucus II. 
(246-226). Seleucus III. (226-222). Antiochus III. the Great (222- 
187). Defeated at Magnesia (190) by the Romans, Antiochus was 



78 Ancient History. B. c 

compelled to accept a peace, which struck the kingdom of the Seleu- 

cidse from the roll of the great powers. 

The following states separated themselves from the Syrian realm of 

the Seleucidas, and did not belong to the Hellenistic system of states. 

278. a. The confederacy of the Galatians (p. 35) in Asia Minor, 
between Bithynia, Phrygia, Lycaonia and Cappadocia, founded 
by Gallic tribes, who, during the wars of the Diodochi, had 
ravaged Macedonia and Greece, crossed the Hellespont and 
in 278 settled in Asia Minor. They consisted of the three 
tribes of- Trocmi, Tectdsages and Tolistoboii (each under four 
Tetrarchs) with the three capitals Tavia, Ancyra and Pessinus. 
In the first century before Christ, Deiotdrus became king of 
all Galatia, which Augustus made a Roman province. 

250. b. The Parthians (p. 29) who under the Arsacidae (250 
B. c. to 226 A. D.) conquered all lands between the Euphrates 
and the Indus, and formed a dam, in the east, first against the 
Hellenistic and afterwards against the Roman power. 

167. c. The Jews under the Maccabees (p. 11). 

The two following countries were never dependent on the empire 

of the Seleucidse. 

a. Pontus, which had, it is true, submitted to Alexander the Great, 
but was recognized as independent under its own kings of Persian 
descent (of the Achsemenidse it was claimed, p. 25), by the victors 
at Ipsus (p. 77). The last kings were Mithridates VI. the Great, 
and his son Pharndces (see Roman History, Fourth Period, p. 129). 

b. Armenia, although kings of Armenia first appear after the 
battle of Magnesia, (190). 

3. The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalidse, Capi- 

tal, Pergamus in Mysia. 
Founded by Philetcerus (283-263) who had been appointed gov- 
ernor by Lysimachus. Eumenes I. (263-241). Attains I. (241-197). 
Eumenes II. (197-159), founder of the library of Pergamus. Atta- 
lus II. (159-138). Attdlus HI. (138-133), who bequeathed the 
kingdom to the Romans. 

4. Bithynia. Capital, Nicomedia. 

Founded by Nicomedes I. (277-250 ?). Zeilas (250-228?). Pru- 
sias I. (228-183), with whom Hannibal took refuge. Prusias II. 
(183-149). Nicomedes II. (149-91). Nicomedes III. (91-75), who 
bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 

5. Macedonia under the descendants of Demetrius Poli- 

orcetes. Capital, Pella. 
Antigonus Gonatas (277-239). Demetrius II. (239-229). Antigonus 
Doson (229-220). Philip V. (Ill), (221-179) defeated by the 
Romans at Cynoscephdlce (197). Perseus (179-168). After the battle 
of Pydna (168) Macedonia became a dependency of Rome, in 146 
it was made a Roman province (p. 122). 

6. The island of Rhodes (TdSos), 

iince the battle of Ipsus (301) an independent state ; since the sec- 



b. c. Greeks. 79 

ond century (b. c.,) dependent ally of the Romans ; made a province 
by the Emperor Vespasian, 71 A. d. 

7. The Greek cantons, 

under the lead of Athens, made a futile attempt, immediately after 
the death of Alexander the Great, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. 
From the city of Lamia in Thessaly, in the neighborhood of which 
the war was principally waged, it was known as the 

323-322. Lamian War. 

The Greeks were at first successful under Leosthenes, and defeated 
Leonnatus, but were defeated by Antipdter and Craterus at Crannon, 
south of the Peneus. The cantons submitted one after another. 
The Athenians were compelled to receive a Macedonian garrison in 
Munychia and to give up their democratic constitution. (Phocion 
and Demddes, the political leaders). Citizenship was regulated by a 
property census. Demosthenes fled and took poison on the island of 
Calauria (Argolis). During the war between Cassander and Polys- 
perchon (p. 76) the democratic party regained its supremacy in Athens, 
and Phocion was executed ; later, however, Demetrius of Phaleron, 
the political companion of Phocion, became under Macedonian su- 
premacy, the ruler of the Athenian commonwealth (317-307). In 
the course of the wars of the Diadochi Demetrius Poliorcetes 
gained possession of Athens several times and made the Acropolis 
the scene of the greatest debauchery (307-295). The last attempt to 
throw off the Macedonian yoke and regain its old importance in 
Greece was made by Athens under Glaucon and Chremomdes in 
263 b. c. but it was defeated after a three years' war and continued 
to be tributary to the Macedonians. Thenceforward Athens had no 
political influence in Greece ; it retained, however, its autonomy as 
regarded its municipal administration, and continued to be the seat of 
culture and learning. 

Thessaly, during this period, was a Macedonian province ; Epirus 
was for a time a separate state, afterwards it was allied with Mace- 
donia. Most of the cantons of central Greece and Peloponnesus became 
allies, more or less dependent, of the Macedonian sovereigns. The 
complete subjugation of Greece by Macedonia was prevented by the 

280. iEtolian League founded about 280, and the AchsBan 

League which was renewed at the same time. 
The latter grew to considerable power and acquired the hegemony 
in Peloponnesus after it was joined by Sicyon (251) which was 
freed from its tyrants by Aratus, and by Corinth (243), which Ara- 
tus had freed from the Macedonian garrison. 

Jealous of this hegemony the iEtolian League and Sparta, which 
had completely lost her ancient simplicity of life, and was in the 
hands of a wealthy oligarchy, joined forces against the Achaean 
League. The young king Agis IV. paid with his life for his attempt 
to induce a reform of the Spartan state (241 ?). A similar at- 
tempt made by King Cleomenes III. had better success, though for a 
time only : he caused the ephors to be surprised and put to death, 



80 Ancient History. B. c. 

banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. 
Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinea, and waged successful war 
against the Achaean League. Aratus sought aid against Sparta from 
the Macedonian king Antigbnus Doson, and delivered the Acropolis 
of Corinth into his hands. 

The Spartans were defeated in the 

221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laconia). 

Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The 
Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon 
the Spartans an alliance with the Achsean League, now under Mace- 
donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- 
volved in a war with the iEtolian League, during which the Spartans 
took sides against the Achseans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- 
aged (220-217). 

About this time the JEtolian League formed an alliance with the 
Romans against Philip V. (III.), of Macedonia, who was allied with 
Hannibal. (First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, 
p. 116). 

Philopoemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- 
came Strategus of the Achsean League in 207, and defeated the 
Spartans under their tyrant, Machamdas, in the 

206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second 
Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achcean 
League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. (III.), 
who, after the battle of Cynoscephalm (197), was forced to 
abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed 
the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support 
everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- 
ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- 
quently appealed to as arbitrators. 
After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nabis, 
Philopozmen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter 
the Achsean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to 
death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- 
stance of Deinocrdtes (183). After the death of Philopcemen, decline 
of the power of the Achaean League, which made a final exertion in 
the so-called Achaean war against the Romans, which ended with 
the 

Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 

146. Capture and destruction of Corinth. 

The Corinthians were sold as slaves ; a part of their land was 
given to Sicyon • the rest became the property of the Roman 
state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- 
ness, and for the most part retained their own administration 
and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of 
Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and 
Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province 
under the name of Achaia. 



B. C. Roman History. $\ 

§ 3. ROMAN HISTORY. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 

(See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.) 

Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of 
the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to 
the Macro, and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before 
Christ ; as applied to the ivhole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was 
first employed in scientific usage by Polybius (about 150) ; it was not 
used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- 
gustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and 
Lower Italy. 

I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the 
AtMsis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- 
banus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Bena- 
cus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before 
Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, 
Vercellaz (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, 
Turin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, 
in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bra- 
cata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- 
mum (Como) ; Mediolanum (Milano, Milan) ; Ticlnum (Pavia), on the 
Ticlnus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the 
Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, 
the birthplace of Virgil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- 
dana: Placentia (Tiacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the 
Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in 
ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace 
of Livius, Aquileia. 

II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and 
Rubico?i in the N., Silarus and Frento in the S., was usually divided 
into six districts : Etruria, Latium, Campaniaj on the Mare Tyrrhe- 
num, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad- 
riaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided 
Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The 
name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern 
inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were 
related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa- 
rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marruclni 
and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts 
of the Sabines, Padigni, and Marsi. 

1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in 
twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- 
federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly 
loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: 
Pisce, Volaterroz, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west 
of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi), 
Volsinii, Tarquinii, Falerii, Cwre, Veil. 



82 Ancient History. B. c. 

2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini : Roma, on 
the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere 
and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the 
city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven 
hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Codius, Esquilinus; 
colles : Viminalis, Quirinalis). 1 On the southern summit of the 
Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol- 
inus, and the Tarpeian Rock ; on the northern summit, separated 
from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of 
Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum (the 
market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, 
with the speakers' platform (Rostra, named from the prows of the 
ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the 
republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. 
Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but 
masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the 
palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium 
(Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the 
Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martius, during the republic 
an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political 
gatherings, after Caesar and during the imperial period covered 
with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The 
buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urbs 
proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, par- 
tially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and the church of 
St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum 
Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must 
be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads 
ran from Rome in various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to 
the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to 
the W., etc. 

Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed 
at the time of the kings ; under the emperors a second harbor, Portus, 
on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa 
Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitrce not far distant, Alba 
Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, 
Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the 
Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the 
brook Allia* 

In the land of the jEqui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. 
In the land of the Hernicm, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, 
Fregellce, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, 
Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptine marshes. 
In the land of the Aruncii : Formiw, Minturnoz, on the Liris (Gari- 
gliano) ; Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager 
Falernus (famous wines). 

1 The expression " seven-hilled city " applies properlv to old Rome, the pala- 
tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican tlome is the result of a 
later misunderstanding. The description of the city of the time of Con- 
stantine, leaves out the two colles, Quirinalis and Viminalis, and increases the 
number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which 
lay outside of the city proper. See Moinmsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 116, note. 



b. c. Roman History. 83 

3. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the 
mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated 
from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of 
Naples), and Sinus Pcestanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coasts 
Liternum; Cumce (Kv/atj, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Eubcea 
in 1050 ?) ; Misenum near the promontory of similar name ; 
Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Baice near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering 
place ; Parthenope or Palceopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (NediroXis, 
Napoli, Naples) ; Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by 
lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Psestanus, the 
chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: 
Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an 
immense amphitheatre; Nola. 

4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena 
Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentlnum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 

5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum. 

6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the 
Sabini : Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures, Reate. In the land 
of the Pmligni : Corfinium ; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium 
proper: Bovianum; ^Esernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mal- 
ventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculoz 
Caudinoe). 

III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna 
Grseca ('EAAas rj /j.eyd\rj), was divided into four districts : Apulia, 
Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium 1 in the west. 

1. Apulia : Luceria, A(u)sculum Apulum, Cannot, Venusia, birth- 
place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria : Brundisium 
(Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tapas, see 
p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pozstum (Posidonia, nocreidwia), with notable 
ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('Hpa/eAeta). 4. Bruttium: 
Sybaris (2u#apis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians ; Thurii 
afterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (KpoVcw), 
not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (Aoitpol 
'EiriCccpvpioi); Rhegium Cvfaiov, i. e. rent, from p-hyviM, the present 
Keggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). 

Italian Islands. 

Sicilia (2i/ceAfa), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum 
(Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with 
its three capes, or promontories : Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in 
the south, and Lilybwmn in the west. On the eastern coast from 
north to south : Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium 
(Taormina), Catdna (Catania) at the base of iEtna, Syracusae 
(2vpdicov(rcu, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent 
comprising five cities : Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also 
called Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of 
Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipola3, at first a suburb. 

l This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient 
authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. d., gave Bruttium 
the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria 
proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that time as Apulia. 



84 Ancient History. b. c. 

On the south coast: Camarlna, Gela, Agrigentum ('AKpdyas, now 
Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, 
not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera; Selinus 
(SeAt^ow). On the west coast: Libybceum, Drepdnum, Eryx. On the 
north coast: Panormus (Tldvop/j.os, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, 
Mylce. In the interior of the island: Henna. . 

Sardinia (2ap5c6): Caralis (Cagliari). 

Corsica (Kvpvos): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. Of 
the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now 
Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insula 3 
JEgates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybseum. 
3. The Insulce 2Eolio3 (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipdra, 
north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and JEnaria, now Ischia, at 
the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, 
Pandataria. 6. Ilva, now Elba. 

RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS. 1 

The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from 
that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, 
though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian elements. 
In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was 
imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state re- 
ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms 
of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. 

The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deifica- 
tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as 
was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, 
the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the 
poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove 
few fancies about them. 

The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods 
and men; " Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess 
of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most 
representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; 
Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth 
where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god 
of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Her- 
cules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mer- 
curius, god of traffic ; Neptunus, god of the sea. 

Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. 
She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified 
with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there 
were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state , 
and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, 
Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, 
represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, 
open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates^ 
presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. 

1 Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommsen, 
Hist- oj Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist, of Rome, chap. IV. 



b. c. Roman History. 85 

"Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of 
ceremonies, — prayers, sacrifices, games, — of strictly prescribed 
form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or 
ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies 
were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the 
pater familias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which 
was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king 
presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was 
appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the 
exclusive right and duty of the king. 

The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " 
having general supervision over religion and all matters connected 
therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifices, 
four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious 
power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days 
were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and 
which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, 
whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the 
hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- 
tion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex 
maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the fiamines and vestales. 
College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- 
sulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation 
of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College 
of Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- 
tween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclu- 
sion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- 
claration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile 
territory. 1 Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline 
books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of 
the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. 
They were an Etruscan institution. 

2. Colleges of officiating priests: Fiamines, who presided in va- 
rious temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing 
priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred 
shields of Mars (ancillce). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred 
fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. Lu- 
perci, Fratres Arvales, etc. 

Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the 
priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, 
(Feb. 15th), Feriaz Latince, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. 

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY. 2 

At the extreme south the Iapygians. Their descent is not certainly 
established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European 
family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- 
nants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true 
Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization. 

1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made this a nWter of diffi' 
culty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and 
into this the spear was hurled. 

2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. chap. 2. 



86 Ancient History. B. C. 

To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants 
of central Italy, the Italici proper, who were divided into the Latin 
and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next of 
kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latini 
occupied the western lowlands (Latium, connected with latus), 1 the 
Umbro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part of 
Central Italy (Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Marsi, Hernici, Volscii). 
A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain 
region which was named after them, and drove back the Iapygians. 
From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Companions, 
called after the plain (Campus) which they settled along the Tyr~ 
rhine sea. 

Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language, 
religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, 
Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their 
ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. 
The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indo- 
European family and the Etruscan language closely related to the 
Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure. 2 

Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif- 
ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Rsetian Alps, while 
the other came by sea. 

Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the 
Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the 
Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. 

The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 
500 b. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians south- 
ward. 

Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, 
colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the 
Hellenes, in Sicily and Loioer Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcid- 
ians (i. e. Ionians), and JEolians were principally engaged therein). 

Roman History can be divided into five periods. 

753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 

510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between 
Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Cen- 
tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wars. 

264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the univer- 
sal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage and 
Corinth. 

146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of 
Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch 
of the civil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule 
of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actium. 

1 The Ausonii (Aurunci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin race, 
as well; also, perhaps the Italici in the narrower sense, who dwelt originally in 
the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi. 

2 W. Corssen, Ueber die Sprache der Etrusher, 1874. W. Deecke, 
Etruskische Forschungen, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. Muller, Dii 
Etrusker, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1877. 



b. c. Roman History. 87 

31 b. c-476 A. d. V. Sway of the Roman Ccesars, down to the fall 
of the Roman Empire of the west. 
The last period extends into Mediaeval History. 

FIRST PERIOD. 
Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 ^lO). 

Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. 
King Numitor of Alba Longa, the descendant of JEneas, who had 
settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his 
throne by his brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused 
his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in Order that the 
line of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, 
the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command 
of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their 
cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were 
rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought 
up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus 
and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. 
At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers ; 
Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused 
of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. 
The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of 
their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather 
Numitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- 
mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the 
Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Parilia, 
April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In 
a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was 
killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after 
himself, Roma. 2 

Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- 
ern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- 
man story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an 
invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly 
clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their 
name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the 
name Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the 
name of the city and the people. 3 All tribal heroes are of divine 
origin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of 
agriculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the 
exposure of the twins and of their miraculous preservation and recog- 
nition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of 
Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan iEneas as- 
cribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 

1 According to Varro's era 753, according to Cato's 751 ; but to change 
years of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minu- 
tnd. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 89. 

2 Livius, I. 1-7. 

3 Compare besides Mammsen, Schwegler, Bom. Gesch., and Peter, Bom. 
9esch., I. 56. 



88 Ancient History. B. c. 

Grecian writers (Stesichorus in the sixth century, Timceus in the third 
century, B. c). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants from 
Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naive 
attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy 
Roman Campagna by connecting it with the common metropolis of 
Latium. 

Nothing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as 
regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement. 
The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly 
unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances. 
The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just 
at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural 
highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- 
acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the 
supposition that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-post 
of the Latins." * Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after 
the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village, 
where the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an 
agricultural district, were exchanged. 

The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be 
maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman 
language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual 
to a degree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships 
(Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnes 
(identical with Romani), the Titi(ens)es, and the Luceres), the first was 
certainly, the third in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it is 
true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele- 
ments, as the Roman language shows. 

The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend. 2 

753-716. Romulus, 

warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Ap- 
pointment of 100 Senatores or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are 
called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Ramnes, Titi{ens)es, 
and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines fol- 
lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol 
through the treachery .of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans 
and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried 
off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the 
common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War 
of Romulus with Fidence and Veil. Romulus is translated during a 
thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 
715-673. Numa Pompilius 

of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from 
among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of 
the Romans according to the advice of the Camcenas (prophetess) 
Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five 
Pontifices, the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flamines, 

1 MommseD, Hist, of Rome, Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 

2 Livius, I. 8 toll. 



B. c. Roman History. . 89 

Fetiales, the four Augur es, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased 

to six. 

673-641. Tullus Hostilius, 

warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the Horatii sxid 
Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to submit. 
War with Veii and Fidenoz; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius 
Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- 
habitants are transferred to Rome. 
641-616. Ancus Marcius, 

grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike ("et 
Numse et Romuli memor"). Development of the institution of the 
Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of 
which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marcius is 
represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the 
founder of the class of the plebeians. 1 Fortification of Janiculum, con- 
struction of a bridge of piles {pons sublicius) over the Tiber. 

Foundation of the harbor of Ostia. 
616-578. Tarquinius Priscus, 

who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of 
Tarquinii, and for whom Grecian descent from the Bacchiadoz of Cor- 
inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and 
was elected to the throne. Commencement of the construction of the 
temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacoz. 
The Senate increased to 300 members ; the number of equites doubled. 
Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etrus- 
cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus, 
578-534. Servius Tullius 

becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son 
of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by 
Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became 
the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Veii. Rome joins the 
Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of 
the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius 
Tullius murdered by his son-in-law, 
534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, 

represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus 
(i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- 
metia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- 
sion of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. 
Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. 
Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle 
at Delphi. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, 
who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life 
against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain 
the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of 
L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Collatid) ,by the king's son, Sextus, 
leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. 
The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend 
makes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an 
imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 
1 Peter, Ror, v . Gesch., I. 8 33, Compare, on the other hand, p. 90. 



90 Ancient History. b. c. 

called the people to arms, and incited the army against the king, who 
found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, L, 
57-60). 

Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings. 1 

There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state 
was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlement 
had become an independent community, the highest power in Rome 
was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the 
same stem as regere, to govern). 

But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, 
nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- 
nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The 
artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately warlike and 
peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- 
ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league was not acquired 
without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms ; but the story has 
come down to us in a fabulous form and has been arbitrarily revised. 
The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latium, is an his- 
torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- 
ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of a 
war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- 
ions. 

As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered historical that 
the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin ; that under 
its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; 
that the division of the people into classes, the erection of the so-called 
Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- 
tion of the first cloacae date from their reigns. 

At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found 
to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens 
with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants 
without political rights (like the Lacedaemonian Periceci and the 
Athenian Metceci; see pp. 50 and 52). The traditional legend gives no 
explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those 
contradictory. 2 The citizens having full rights are evidently the de- 
scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. 
Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- 
ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such 
rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. "Children of the fathers." 
The people who were not included in these families, but stood under 
their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patronus), 
were distinguished by the name Clientes (from cluere). Their de 
scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered 
in war, formed gradually a second Roman community, whose mem- 
bers were not citizens. These were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 

1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Borne, Book I. chap. 4. Peter, Rom. Gesch. 
I 3 54-56) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditional 
history of the kings. 

2 See page 88 the reign of Romulus, and p. 89, that of Ancus Marcius. Comp> 
,Moxmns>ea, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 5. 



b. c. Roman History. 91 

•glebes, connected with pleo, plenus) ; i. e. the masses, the great mob. 
As the majority of the population of conquered cities were compelled 
to enter the plebeian class, whether they were settled in or near Rome 
or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs 
composed of poor people entirely; there were from the beginning 
many wealthy and respected families among them. 

Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, 
from the legend, the Constitution of Romulus, the Patricians alone 
formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- 
nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military 
service. They were divided into curiae, districts, at first 10 in num- 
ber, after the union of the Tides and Luceres with the Ramnes 30 
(p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or gentes. The 
assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king 
when he had an announcement or an inquiry to make, formed the 
comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the 
right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the 
consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- 
tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the community only 
when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- 
sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, 
seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but 
representing the gentes after a manner. 

This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a 
reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which 
tradition has coupled with the name of Servius Tullius. Military 
service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on 
all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants 
of the class of metceci. Every freeholder between seventeen and 
sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed 
of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of 
double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- 
beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the 
cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences 
in making up the infantry, but the kind of armor to be furnished by 
the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- 
tion. This is the 

Servian classification, 1 for military service and taxation, 
of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- 
sus). 

A. Cavalry (Equites). 

6 pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in all 
1800 horse, all of the first class. 

1 The census was not expressed in money until the time of Appius Claudim 
up. c. 312). Leighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 



92 Ancient History. b. & 

B. Foot- Soldiers (Pedites). 

Class. Number of Centuries. Property in Asses. 1 Armor. "Weapons. 



1. 


1 


80 C with 20 jugera 


100,000 


galea, clipeus, oc- 


rt 








rese, lorica 


CO 


2. 


1. 


20 C. with | as much 


75,000 


galea, scutum, 


A 








ocreae 


h CD 


3. 


V 


20 C. with.| as much 
20 C. with | as much. 


50,000 


galea, scutum 


3 


4. 


>-s 


25,000 


scutum 


5. 




28 C. with £ (1-10) as 
much 


12,000 





5b 
funds© 



It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in the 
different classes, that the division of the land at that time was such 
that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and a 
farm of that size was considered the standard. 

In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 
16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions juniores (first 
levy, 17--46 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniores 
(second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added are 
3 centuries of fabri (pioneers), tubicines and cornucines (musicians), 
2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- 
tarii and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. As 
the population increased the number of centuries was not enlarged, 
but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new 
recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. 

This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was 
henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the 
army had been when divided into curise. This was at first the only 
privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved 
to the comitia curiata, which consisted exclusively of patricians. 
It was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the 
new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, 
and that a new popular assembly, the comitia centuriata, de- 
veloped out of the new military organization. The reform ascribed 
to Servius had originally a purely military character. It gave the 
Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the 
way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants 
who were not land-owners, be they clientes or foreign metozci, were 
henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants 
who owned no land were called, after the money which they had to 
pay for protection, aerarii. 2 

For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided 
into four wards (Tribus), so that each legion contained the same 
number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a 
new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purification 
(lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of five 
years. 

1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. Livius, I., 42 and foil. 

2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. 



B, c. Roman History. 98 



SECOND PERIOD. 

Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation 
of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of the Punic Wars 

(510-264). 

510 (?) . Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a Republic. 

According to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the 
republic were 

509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. 
The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, 
soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- 
cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the 
lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanum 
adversus provocationem (p. 91) neceret neve verberaret). On 
the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius 
(501, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Polybius calls the 
consuls of the first year 
509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius. 1 

We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated 
about the details of this revolution. This alone is certain, that the 
arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the 
banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepulchre has 
been discovered in Ccere, in Etruria). The fear lest the common- 
wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united 
the patricians and plebeians for a short time. 

We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional 
change, since on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- 
tions which we find in existence in historic times. The change in the 
constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative 
in character. The sovereign reigning during life was replaced by 
two rulers holding office for a year, taken from the patricians. They 
were called at first Praetores, Judices, or Consules; later, the lattei 
name only was applied to them. 2 They exercised, generally, regal 
power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in war and peace); auspicia publica 
(i. e. supplication of the gods in behalf of the state) ; convening the 
popular assembly and the senate ; taking the census ; appointment of 
senators and the two patrician quazstors. The latter, whose office was 
established during the time of the kings, exercised the functions of 
criminal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state 
treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were 
assigned 12 lictores as a public indication of their official power. 

1 Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treaty be- 
tween Rome and Carthage fell in the first year of the Republic, is disputed by 
Mommsen (iJoro. Chronologie bis auf Ccesar, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly 
defended by Kissen (Jahrbiicher fur Philologie, 1867), and others. 

2 The. derivation of consul and prcetnr is doubtful. Consul denotes either 
" administrator of the state " (qui consulit reipublicce), or merely colleague. Pros'- 
tor denotes "general" (qui prosit exercitui, like the German Herzog), or one 
who presides over the state (qui praeit, praeest reijmblicae). See Marquar&fe 
Mommsen, Rom. Alterthumer, II. p. 71 f . 



94 Ancient History. B. c. 

According to the lex Valeria de provocatione l (509), all citizens 
had right of appeal from sentences of death pronounced by the con- 
suls, which were not delivered according to military law, to the peo- 
ple, even against the will of the consuls; and this appeal was not 
to the old " populus," composed of patricians, but to the comitia 
centuriata, the assembly of the new military and political com- 
munity founded by the Servian constitution (p. 92). 

The comitia centuriata acquired, moreover, in consequence of the 
violent alteration of the constitution, the right to elect the consuls, 
or rather, according to old Koman interpretation, the right of design 
nating them to the consul who presided over the election, who there- 
upon appointed them (creare). The comitia centuriata acquired 
also the right of accepting or rejecting bills laid before it, but 
the six patrician centuries of equites retained the important right of 
voting first on any proposed measures. 

The Senate, formerly consisting of patricians exclusively, was 
now enlarged, or rather brought up to its legal number, by the ad- 
mission of plebeians from the equites, i. e. the wealthy. Hence the 
formula: Patres \_et\ conscripti. 

The nature of the changes which the comitia curiata (p. 91) 
underwent in consequence of the revolution is much disputed; it is 
certain only that it soon sank into complete insignificance. According 
to the view which is most commonly received, it retained at first the 
right of approving the elections or resolves of the comitia centuriata, 
a privilege expressed by the formula patres (i. e. patricii) auc- 
tores fiunt. 2 Others understand the expression patres to apply to 
the senatores, and claim the right of approval mentioned above for 
the Senate. 3 

At a time of special danger the consuls were replaced by an ex- 
traordinary official, the dictator, or magister populi, who was not 
elected, but appointed by one of the consuls (dictatorem dicere) 
without the participation of the citizens. (Practically, however, the 
Senate commonly played an important part in the selection.) As 
soon as danger was over the dictator resigned his office (dictatura 
se abdicare), which he could not hold longer than six months in any 
event. The dictator appointed his magister equitum (master of 
the horse) ; the sign of his power, which was thoroughly royal, was 
24 (?) lictors. Appeal from his decisions was allowed only in cases 
where it had been permitted against the king (p. 91). 

1 "The habeas corpus act of the Romans." Leighton, Hist, of Rome, 
p. 53. [Trans.] 

2 Becker, Rom. Alth. II. 3, p. 183, u. Schwegler, Rom. Gescji. II. 160. 

3 According to Mommsen {Hist, of Rome, I. 264), all new citizens, that is, 
nil land-owning plebeians were in consequence of the revolution (510) admitted to 
the comitia curiata, and the old body of citizens, or the patricians, thereby lost the 
right of debating and deciding for political purposes, in an assembly apart from 
the rest of the citizens. This opinion is opposed by other scholars, who main- 
tain that plebeians were first admitted to the comitia curiata toward the end of the 
Republic. Mommsen thinks that the right of approval belonged to the smaller 
purely patrician senate, while the larger senate, increased by the addition of 
plebeian conscripti, was, during the first years of the Republic, an advisory 
council for the consuls. 



b. c. Roman History. 95 

509. According to the Roman legend a conspiracy of young pa- 
tricians was discovered in Rome, which purposed the restora- 
tion of the monarchy. Execution of Brutus' son. 
508. Unsuccessful war of the Romans against the Etruscan king 
Porsena of Clusium. The Romans were defeated, and com- 
pelled to purchase peace by a surrender of territory and com- 
plete disarming. Roman story of Horatius Codes, the brave 
defender of the bridge over the Tiber, of the heroic courage 
of Mucins Sccevola (i. e. left-handed ; the well-known story is 
probably only an attempt to explain the name), and Clcelia, in 
Livius II. 9-13. When the Etruscans advanced further into 
Latium they were defeated by the Latins and their allies from 
lower Italy before Aricia, and could not maintain themselves 
<on the left bank of the Tiber. In consequence of this Etrus- 
can defeat, Rome seems to have freed itself from the dis- 
graceful peace imposed upon it, and to have gradually re- 
gained its former powerful position. 
496 (?). Tradition of a great victory of the Romans over the Latins 
by the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum, won by the dictator, 
Aulus Postumius, with the aid of the Dioscuri (Livius II. 19). 
The inner history of the Roman community for this period deals 
with two contests, one political and one social. I. Contest of the 
patricians, who gradually developed into an hereditary nobility, 
against the new citizens, or plebeians. The latter, who could, it is 
true, become senators (conscripti), but were excluded from the offices 
of state and from the priesthood, aimed at complete political equality. 
Since the offices of state in Rome, as among the ancients generally, 
were administered without pay (hence, honores, officers of honor), it 
was essentially the wealthier plebeian families alone who were inter- 
ested in this contest. II. The social contest between the well- 
to-do property-owners and the owners or renters of small 
farms, who were growing poorer, or had been deprived of their pos- 
sessions. 

The use of the ager publicus, i. e. the public land, acquired by 
conquest (comprising both cultivated land and pasture), belonged 
legally to the patricians only. In fact the senate made exceptions in 
favor of the rich plebeian houses which had become members; the 
small plebeian land-owners and renters were strictly excluded from 
the privilege. Very seldom, on occasion of new conquests, a dis- 
tribution of land was made among the poor plebeians, but the greater 
part of the state domain was leased to the patrician land-owners for a 
moderate rent, which was, probably, hardly ever regularly collected, 
and these estates were soon treated as private property. Gradually 
the tillage of the large farms was given over to slaves, and the ple- 
oeian tenants were thereby driven from their holdings. The plebeian 
owners of small peasant holdings sank into a condition of the great- 
est misery, through frequent military service, taxation, excessive in- 
terest on loans, and the cruel Roman law of debt, which placed the 
person and property of the debtor in the creditor's hands. In conse- 
quence of this there were repeated uprisings and refusals to perform 
military service, which, in 495, was overcome only by the appointmen/" 



96 Ancient History. B. c. 

of a dictator. Finally, when the patricians refused to grant the prom* 
ised alleviations, and continued their ill treatment of those who be- 
came their slaves through debt (nexi), the plebeian soldiers in the 
victorious army, as they were returning home, turned aside, under the 
leadership of plebeian military tribunes, to a small hill on the Anio 
(later called Mons Sacer), and threatened to found a plebeian city in 
that fertile region (three miles from Rome). This is the so-called 

494 C?). 1 Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred 
Mount (secessio plebis in montem sacrum), which compelled 
the patricians (Menenius Agrippa, fable of the belly and the 
members) to make sincere concessions. After abrogation of 
the oppressive debts, 

494 (?). Creation of the tribunate (tribuni plebis) and 
the plebeian aediles. 

The tribunes of the people (at first 2 (?), then 5, finally 10), 
were always chosen from the plebs. 2 They were inviolable (sacro- 
sancti). They had the right of protection (jus auxilii) for every 
plebeian against injustice on the part of an official. This privilege 
developed into an extensive right of intercession (jus intercessionis) 
against every administrative or judicial act, with the exception of the 
imperium militare, — that is to say, against the dictator and against the 
consul when he was more than a mile from the city. From the first 
the tribunes of the people exercised judicial functions, convened the 
assemblies of the plebeians, and proposed criminal sentences for their 
consideration. Later (448), the tribunes were admitted to the senate, 
where, by their veto, they could deprive any resolution of the senate 
(ssnatus consultus) of its legislative force, and reduce it to a mere ex- 
pression of opinion (senatus auctoritas). The two aediles of the 
people (cediles plebis) assisted the tribunes, and superintended the 
business of the markets. Their name was probably derived from 
the temple (cedes) of Ceres, where they preserved the official docu- 
ment which decreed the establishment of the plebeian magistracy. 

During this time (according to some authorities, not until later) 
occurred the establishment of the important comitia tributa. In 
this assembly the citizens voted according to wards or tribus; not, 
however, the four wards of the Servian constitution (p. 92), but ac- 
cording to a later (perhaps 495) division into 20 tribus, to which 
was added the Crustuminian tribus (494), making 21, and the num- 
ber gradually rose to 35. It is probable that, down to the time 
of the legislation of the decemvirs, plebeians only, after that 
time, however, the whole body of land-owning inhabitants, both patri- 
cians and plebeians, voted in the comitia tributa. 8 In this comitia 

1 Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 279. 

2 It is commonly assumed as probable that up to ;he lex Publilia (472) the 
tribunes were elected in the comitia centuriata, and approved by the comitia 
curiata. According to the testimony of Dionysius (IX. 41) and Cicero (pro 
Corn.), they were chosen by the curiata; according to Mommsen's view (p. 94, 
note), this denotes that they were at first elected by the plebeians assembled bj 
curiae. 

3 See the different opinions in Becker, Rom. Alther., II. 1, p. 175 and 399. 



B. c. Roman History. 97 

each tribus had one vote, which was decided by the majority of voters 
in the tribus. Compared with the comitia centuriata, therefore, the 
ascendency of the wealthy was done away with, as was also the privi- 
lege, enjoyed by the nobility, of throwing their votes first. 
493. In the consulate of Spurius Cassius, renewal of the eternal 
alliance between Rome and the Latin league on a basis of 
equality. Only gradually did Rome acquire again the he- 
gemony over the Latins. Continual disputes with Etruscans, 
Sabines, JEqui, Volscians. Continuation of the contests be- 
tween patricians and plebeians ; the institution of the tribu- 
nate proving to be the organization of civil strife and anarchy., 
An attempt was soon made to abolish the tribunate by the 
patrician 
491. Cn. (C. ?) Marcius, called Coriolanus (from the storm of 
Corioli), who, during a famine, proposed to grant the plebeians 
grain at the expense of the state, only on condition that they 
gave up the tribunate. When summoned by the tribunes be- 
fore the comitia tributa, Coriolanus declined to appear; being 
banished in his absence, he went to the Volscians, and, accord- 
ing to the story, led their troops against Rome, but, at the 
rebuke of his mother, Veturia, and the entreaties of his wife, 
Volumnia, gave up the war against his native city (Livius, 
II. 40). 
487. The Hernici invaded the Roman territory. Being defeated by 
the consul Aquillius, and, in the next year, by the consul Spu- 
rius Cassius, the 
486. Hernici joined the Latin league. 

486. Spurius Cassius Viscellinus ( Vecellinus ?), consul for the 
third time, brought forward the first agrarian law. He pro- 
posed to divide a part of the public lands among needy plebeians 
and Latins • the rest to be actually leased for the profit of the 
public treasury. The patricians and wealthy plebeians joined 
forces against Spurius Cassius ; the lower classes were dissat- 
isfied that the Latins should also receive land and abandoned 
him. After the close of his term of office he was sentenced 
and executed. 
479. Withdrawal of the gens Fabia and their 
477. destruction by the Etruscans at the brook Cremera. 
473. Murder of the tribune of the people, Gnceus Genucius, who had 

ventured to call two consuls to account. 
471. Law carried by the tribune of the people, Volero Publilius, 
to the effect that the plebeian magistrates should, in future, be 
elected by the comitia tributa (lex publilia: ut magistratus 
plebei comitiis tributis creentur, p. 96). 
463. Plague in Rome and throughout Italy. 

462. Motion of the tribune of the people, C. Terentilius Arsa, for 
the appointment of a body of ten men to reduce the laws to a 
written code. Violent opposition of the patricians. 
160. Surprise of the Capitol by Htrdonius at the head of some polit- 
ical refugees (Livius III. 15). 
Renewal of civil discord. In order to satisfy the plebeians, the nunv 
7 



98 Ancient History. b. c. 

ber of tribunes of the people was raised from 5 to 10 (457) ; in the 
following year the Mons Aventinus was divided into building lots, 
which were distributed among the poor citizens. Dictatorship of 
L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, who rescued an army which had been sur- 
rounded by the iEqui (Livius III. 26). A compromise was reached 
in regard to the codification of the laws, whereby three ambassadors 
were sent to Greece to bring back copies of the Solonian laws and 
others (454). After their return 

451. Decemvirs, a body of ten men, were chosen from the 
patricians {Decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis), and 
the consulate, tribunate, and right of appeal were for the time 
suspended. The code of laws drawn up by the decemvirs was 
accepted by the people, engraved on copper tables, and set up 
in the forum. As an appendix seemed necessary, 

450. Decemvirs were appointed again, three being plebeians, who 
added two more tables. Henceforward the law of the city and 
county of Rome, according to which the consuls were to ex- 
ercise their judicial functions, was known as the laws of the 
twelve tables (Leges duodecim tabularum). By their 
exposure the patrician administration was henceforth sub- 
jected to the control of public judgment. Instead of giving 
place to the regular magistrates after the completion of the 
two supplementary tables the decemvirs remained in office 
during the succeeding year (449). An attempt of the mod- 
erate aristocracy, headed by the Valerii and Horatii, to 
compel the abdication of the decemvirs, was unsuccessful. 
The latter, under Appius Claudius, the head of the extreme 
party of the nobles, acquired the preponderance in the state. 
At first the people submitted and acquiesced in a levy for the 
war against the Sabines and Volscians. The oppression of the 
decemvirs, especially of Appius Claudius.- murder of the former 
tribune of the people, Siccius Dentatus, and the attack on the 
liberty and honor of the betrothed of the former tribune L. 
Icilius, Virginia, whom her own father Virginius stabbed 
in the forum, brought about an uprising (Liv. III. 44 foil.). 
The plebeian soldiers occupied the Aventine and the Sacred 
Mount. Valerius and Horatius managed a compromise, ac- 
cording to which the decemvirs abdicated. Appius Claudius 
and Spurius Oppius disembowelled themselves in prison, the 
others were sent into exile. It is impossible to decide what 
part of this romantic story is historical. It seems certain that 
the consulate and tribunate were reestablished. The power of 
the nobility was further weakened by the 

448. Laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius (leges Horatio?): 
1. The resolves (plebisclta) of the comitia tributa were given 
equal force with those of the comitia centuriata (ut quod tribu- 
tim plebs jussisset populum teneret). 2. Every magistrate, in- 
cluding therefore, the dictator, was obliged, in future, to allow 
appeals from his decision (ne quis ullum magistratum sine provo- 
catione crearet, qui creasset,eumjusfasqueessetoccldi). 3. Reeog- 



B. c. Roman History. 99 

nition of the inviolability of the tribunes of the people, and ex- 
tension of the same privilege to the sediles (ut qui tribunis 
plebis, cedilibus nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset). About 
the same time (447) two quaestors were appointed whose pe- 
culiar charge was the military treasury (making in all 4 quaest- 
ors, see p. 93) ; they were patricians, but were appointed by the 
comitia tributa, wherein both patricians and plebeians voted 
henceforward, if not before (p. 96). In 421 the qusestorship 
was opened to the plebeians. Moreover, the tribunes of the 
people acquired the right of taking auspices, and were admitted 
to the senate, though at first required to occupy a bench near 
the door. 
445. Law of the tribune Canuleius legalizing marriage between 
patricians and plebeians (lex Canuleia de conubio : ut conubia ple- 
bei cum patribus essent). The children inherit the rank of the 
father. The motion brought forward by this tribune that the 
consuls might be chosen from the plebeians (ut populo potestas 
esset, seu de plebe seu de patribus vellet, consules faciendi), was vio-» 
lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, 
and it was decreed that instead of consuls 

444. military tribunes (6) with consular power (tr* 
buni militum consulari potestate) 
should be appointed, and that to this office plebeians could be 
elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office,, 
that of censor. The two censors were elected in the comitia 
centuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but 
every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3^ years out 
of every five. Functions of the censors : 1. Taking the census 
every 5 (4 ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling 
the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators (lectio 
senatus) and the equites (recognitio equitum). 2. Preparation 
and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- 
erty, farming the indirect taxes (vectigalia), superintendence 
of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality 
(regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under 
the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- 
portance in the next century (Notatio censoria). 

439. Spurius Mailius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- 
uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal 
power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the 
horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 

405-396. Siege of Veii, 

the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the 
Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long 
continuance and obstinacy of the war with Veii is proved by 
the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not 
interrupted during the winter. The result was, that the citi- 
zens who served in the army now for the first time received 
pay from the public treasury (i. e. out of the taxes on the 
public lands). 1 Capture and destruction of Veii by the 

l Leigfcton, Hist, of Rome, p. 70, note 1. [Tkans. 



100 Ancient History. B. c. 

dictator, M. Purras Camillus. The fall of Yeii marks the 
beginning of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was 
hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Celts 
(Gauls) from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea 
by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the Syracusans, 
whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 
391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- 
justice in the division of the booty from Veii. 
Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- 
sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium. 
against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the 
three Fabii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. 
The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 

390 (July 18). Battle of the Allia, 

a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven miles north of 
Rome. Utter defeat and rout of the Romans on the right 
bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. 
Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolinus alone contin- 
ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by 
the Gauls under their Brennus, i. e* military ruler. Slaughter 
of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. 
The geese of Juno. M. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven 
months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was 
purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- 
sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the 
haughty Brennus ( Vce victis /) in the forum, while the gold was 
being weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of 
emigrating to Veii broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- 
lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon regained its old 
power, after the JEqui, the Volscians, and the Etruscans, who 
had taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. 

Equalization of the old orders. Origin of the new nobility. 

Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians: 1, by 
the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate; 2, by the 
poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and 
creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those 
tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- 
ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- 
ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician M. Manlius Capi- 
tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was 
accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, 
and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally 
agreed upon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- 
mons, whose results were seen in the 

376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Sextius, trib- 
unes of the people (rogationes Licinice). The first two were 
designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; 
the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the long-wished-for 
equality with the patricians. 



B. c. Roman History. 101 

I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already 
paid from the principal; the rest to be paid within three years in 
three installments (ut, deducto eo de capite quod usuris pernumeratum 
esset, id quod super esset triennio cequis portionibus persolveretur). 

II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public 
lands (ne quis plus quam quingenta jugera agri publici 1 possideret). 

III. Abolition of the tribuni militum consulari potestate. One, at 
least, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians (ne 
tribunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe crea- 
retur). 

After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the 
dictatorship had failed to accomplish anything, 

367. The Licinian laws were passed. 

366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first 
plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great 
colleges of priests {decemviri [formerly duoviri\ sacris faciundis) 
was opened to the plebeians. 
In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- 
partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the 
establishment of a new patrician magistracy, the prsetorship. The 
praetor (since 243, one prsetor urbanus, and one praetor inter cives et 
peregr'inos; since 227, four; since 197, six praetors) had the jurisdiction 
(dare sc. judicium, dicere, sc. sententiam, addicere, sc. rem), and was 
the vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a 
new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguish him from the plebeian 
officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon 
(probably since 364; certainly since 304) made accessible to the ple- 
beians, and patrician and plebeian curule sediles were elected for 
alternate years. The duties of the two aediles curules were: 1. to 
manage the ludi Romani • 2. to supervise the markets and the street- 
police, and to preside in the police courts connected therewith. 

Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- 
ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and 
even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open 
violation of the third Licinian law, all public offices were, neverthe- 
less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession: the dictatorship 
356 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- 
nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the prcetorship 
337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in 
each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician 
order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con- 
tinued only as a social order or rank. 

A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in 
political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which 
had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices 
(summi honores). These families regarded every citizen who obtained 
office, but did not belong to their set, as an upstart (homo novus). The 

1 The word publici is lacking in the text of Livius ("VT. 35). But it is clear 
that the law could have referred to public land onvv. Cf. Wiebuhr, Hist, of 
Borne III. 11; and Mommsen, Hist, of Borne, I. 304 foil. 



102 Ancient History. b. c. 

new nobility could not, however, separate itself so sharply from 
the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased 
its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower 
classes. 

Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- 
tricians, the office of tribune, which was generally in the hands of 
the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its 
revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people 
soon obtained not only seats and votes in the senate, but also the 
right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from 
this time on was the principal executive body governing the state. 
Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented 
both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by 
the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The 
censors (p. 99) filled vacancies in the senate principally from the 
numbers of those citizens which had occupied the office of quaestor 
(p. 99) or a higher office. Their age was at least 30 years ; prob- 
ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appointed 
for life, but subjected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the 
censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators 
were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- 
getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of 
her power which took place in the near future. 

As formerly, the comitice exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, 
especially the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa, in 
which all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 98), 
while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata 
(or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. 
Here belong two of the three laws of the plebeian dictator, Pub- 
lilius Philo {leges Publilice), of the year 338 : 1. A vote of the 
comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- 
proved by the comitia curiata (ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent). 
2. Laws presented to the centuries shall be approved beforehand (ut 
legum, quae, comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initum suffragium 
auctores fierent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex 
plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius Philo became the first 
plebeian praetor in 337. 

In the year 312 the censor Appius Claudius included the inhab- 
itants of Rome who were not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- 
ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- 
reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata 
and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa~ 
bius Rullianus (Maximus) in the year 304. As regards the comitia 
tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freed- 
men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,000 
sestertes (about $1500J, were divided among the four city wards 
(tribus urbanai), which now became the last in rank instead of the 
first. The country wards (tribus rustics), the number of which had 
by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of 
the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholders, 
and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comitia 



p. c. Roman History. 103 

centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired 
many privileges, equality of the freemen who were and those who 
were not freeholders was secured ; but the freedmen, with excep- 
tion of those of the first two classes, were entirely shut out from the 
centuries. 1 

The Licinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically 
cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. 
The law of the consul Pcetelius (lex Pcetelia), passed in 326 or 
313, secured to every insolvent debtor who should transfer his prop- 
erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa 
nectatur, utique bona tantummodo obnoxia sint). By these and other 
ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of 
citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence 
of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced 
into the background. 

At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of 
the army. 2 Division of the new legion into 30 maniples, each con- 
taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle in three lines 
(hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to 
property classification was abolished. Long lances Qiasta) were re- 
served for the third line, the first and second line receiving in their 
stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- 
ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 
367-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled 
in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and 
thence made frequent inroads into central Italy. In the first 
war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- 
gantic Gaul ; in the second, the first triumph of a plebeian 
consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat inflicted 
upon the Gauls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- 
rius Camillus, the younger. Single combat of M. Valerius 
Corvus with a Gaul. 
362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice 

of M. Curtius. 
362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities 
(especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league 
between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on 
the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected 
to the Romans than before. 
358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and 
Falerii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- 
tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- 
ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 
348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage, 3 

the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 
350-345. War with the Volscii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- 
cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- 
pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way south- 

1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. 

2 Mommsen, Hist, qj Rome, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, I. 3 , 222 foil. 

3 See p. 93, note 1. 



104 Ancient History. b. c. 

ward without stay. This great development of Rome's power 
brought about the 

343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and 

the Greek cities of Italy. 
Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubicon and Macra, undei 

the supremacy of Rome. 

343-341. First war with the Samnites. 

Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both 
Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the 
Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, 
who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- 
tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. 

According to the Roman tradition, 1 their armies gained three vic- 
tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- 
vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cumse) ; victory of A. Cornelius Cossus, 
after his army had been rescued by P. Decius Mus, a military trib- 
une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was 
ended by a treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites 
Teanum. The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a 
war with Tarentum, the Romans by the 

340-338. Great Latin War. 

The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded 
complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate 
were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates) 
and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. 

Victory of the {Roman and Samnite f) armies over the Latins and 
Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. 
Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who 
against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander 
and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of 
his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Minturnce and 
Suessa) ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa- 
nians. 

Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- 
ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the 
Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connubium between 
them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- 
ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were 
obliged to cede land, which was divided among Roman citizens ; others 
were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The 
orator's stand in the forum Romanum was ornamented with the bows 
of the old ships of this city (hence rostra}. The Roman power in the 
territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the 
settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capua and other cities 
became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). 

1 Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hist, oj 
Rome, I. 365, note. 



B. C. Roman History. 105 

326-304. Second war with the Samnites and the other 
Italians. 

Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the 
transformation of Fregellce into a Roman colony, and the capture 
of Palceopolis (twin city of Neopolis), by Q. Publilius Philo, the 
first pro-consul. 

Alliance of the Romans with the Apulians and Lucanians and, in 
the course of the war, with the Sabellian cities south of the Volturnus 
(IVola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at first sided with the 
Samnites. 

The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and 
crossed Samnium to Apulia, plundering as they went ; but in 321 
the consuls Sp. Postumius and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania 
to the assistance of the Apulian city Luceria, were surrounded by the 
Samnites under Gavius Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculce 
Caudince), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, 
swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. 
The whole Roman army was sent under the yoke. The Roman 
senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the 
Samnites, who refused to receive them. 

The Samnites conquered Luceria in Apulia and Fregellce on the 
Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. 
In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, 
released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under 
the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- 
ing fortune ; nevertheless, the Romans subdued their revolted allies 
and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They 
defeated the Samnites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- 
pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109). 
Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through 
the Pomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which still remains. 
(Begun under the censor Appius Claudius, 312). 

Aiter 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the 
Etruscan cities took part in the war against Rome. Soon the whole 
of Etruria, which was still independent, was in arms against the 
destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, 
Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fabius Rullianus 
through the Ciminian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian 
lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arretium, 
to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 
308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umbrians, Pi- 
centini, Marsians, Frentanians, Pcelignians, who had joined the Ital- 
ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the 
Hernicans. The fortune of war for a short time favored the Sam- 
nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- 
dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Samnites in a great battle 
(309). Nuceria, the last Campanian town in alliance with the Sam- 
nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to 
surrender. First appearance of a Roman war fleet. The con- 
sul L. Postumius invaded Samnium from the Adriatic Sea : another 



106 Ancient History. b. c. 

Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the 
Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the 
Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and 
with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and 
equality with Rome. 

Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; 
the Hernican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and JEquians were 
obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction 
of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called 
Via Flaminia) extended to Namia (Nequinum) ; the southern (later 
Via Valeria) extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on 
lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Mar si. 

298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other 
Italians. 

Cause: The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into 
power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians 
in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New 
rising among the Etruscans. 

The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old 
Latin inscription, 1 discovered in 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- 
can Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- 
nium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Decius Mus 
at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en^ 
abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend their 
own country, one for Campania, while the third was conducted by its 
commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umbrian lands 
to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace 
which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- 
tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- 
parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius 
Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- 
sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- 
cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the 
Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- 
tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, 
the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted 
in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- 
nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor 
and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory 
under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. 

Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M\ Curius 
Dentatus, as it seems, without ceding territory ; but the Romans 

1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was en- 
graved some time after the death of Scipio, was : — 

Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbdtus 

Gnnivod pntre progndtus fortis vir sapiensque 

quoiiis forma virtutei parisuma ( parissima) fuit 

consol censor aidilis quel fuit apud vos 

Taurdsid Cisauna Sdmnio cepit 

subigit omne Loucdnam qpsidesque abdouciU 



b. c. Roman History. 107 

thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of 
Italy. 

This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which 
should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturnce and Sin- 
uessa in the territory of the Auruncans, Hatria in Picenum, Venusia 
in Apulia. . The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, 
after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite 
wars, the 

286 (?). Hortensian law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby 
it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should 
be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the 
dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, 
who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party 
in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the 
Janiculus (last secessio plebis). About this time questions of 
peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri- 
buta. 
By the lex Meenia the second Publilian law (that the curiae, or 
the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, 
see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the 
comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public 
assemblies was declining ; they became more and more instruments 
in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in 
consequence of the peace with the Samnites, there broke out a 

285-282. war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. 

Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians 
and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- 
ians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of north- 
ern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian 
mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. 
The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part 
driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the 
north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), 
and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After 
a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the 
non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii 
received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 

282-272. War with Tarentum. 

Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman 
of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman 
war fleet on its way to the Umbrian coast anchored in the harbor of 
Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- 
tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to 
death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- 
aration in Tarentum was insulted. 

A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- 
tines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned 
general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan 
of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 



108 Ancient History. b. o. 

west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum 
(281) ; he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army 
of 25,000 men {Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- 
phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of 
an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against 
the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king 
in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on 
evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the 
proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One 
Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In 
the 

280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris, 

the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long 
doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. 
The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer 
of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was 
haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Ap- 
pius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia in Campania, but 
there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took 
the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. 
Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- 
change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each 
numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 
279. Battle of A(u)sculum, 

in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was 
victor, but again suffered enormous loss. 
The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), 
had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon 
Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in 
Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- 
thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, 
but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in 
Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon 
captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and 
Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed 
in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed 
by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 
275. Battle of Beneventum. 

1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the 
victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- 
turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until 
ifter the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at 
A.rgos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum 
to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- 
tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and 
destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- 
istration. 
After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Sam- 
nites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- 
ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe~ 



B. c. Roman History. 10£ 

gium, which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian muti- 
neers, who were now punished with death. In 268 the Picentini were 
defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The 
subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the 
defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of 
the conquered towns to Rome we must distinguish: 

I. Municipal cities (municipia), i. e. communities having Roman 
citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at 
Rome (sine suffragio etjure honorum). They had the burdens but not 
the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to 
keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of 
their own choosing ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely 
abolished. 

II. Colonies (colonics), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. 
Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was 
then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights 
of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- 
onies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to 
inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- 
tinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- 
ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its 
dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or 
Roman citizens, who renounced their jus suffragii et honorum. In the 
municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of 
a prefect (protfectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prcetor urbanus 
(p. 101). 

III. Allies (socii, civitates fozderatce), whose relation to Rome was 
regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administra- 
tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but 
were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. 

THIRD PERIOD. 

Punic Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- 
pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 
(264-146). 

264-241- First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. 

For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see 
p. 16, etc. 

Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between 
Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the 
west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- 
tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were 
hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had 
endeavored to form a fleet of war. About this time establishment 
at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) 
of 4 quaistors of the fleet (quazstores classici). 

Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly 
Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized 
the city of Messana and put the male popidation to death. They were 



110 Ancient History. B. c. 

besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought 
aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The 
Roman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- 
ance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships 
of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived 
in Rhegium. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- 
ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the 
citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- 
sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians 
declared war. 

264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The 
consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the 
main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful 
attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, 
leaving a garrison in Messana. 
263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul 
M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians 
and Syracusans. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted the Cartha- 
ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south 
coast of Sicily. 
262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans, after defeat of a 
Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The 
Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the 
first five-decker 1 (penteris) after the model of a stranded 
Carthaginian ship. 
260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipara, with 
17 ships, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the 
consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- 
ians. Immediately afterwards, however, 
260. First naval victory of the Romans under C. Duilius at 
Mylee, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- 
ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war 
was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; 
the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in 
the western portion of the island. 
257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. 

The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A 
fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- 
lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth 
of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian 
fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 
256. Naval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) 

it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- 
ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The 
Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste 
the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the 
army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being 
defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily 
and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 

1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and 
three-deckers, see pp, 105, 107, 109. 



b. c. Roman History. Ill 

and acknowledgment of Rome's supremacy. Stung by these inso- 
lent demands, the Carthaginians resolved upon most energetic prepa- 
rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence numerous bands of mer- 
cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippus, went to Africa. 
The Carthaginian army being thus greatly strengthened (the ele- 
phants numbered 100), 
255. Regulus was defeated at Tunes 

and captured. A part of the Roman army escaped to Clupea. 
The senate at once sent a fleet to Africa, which, after gaining a naval 
victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on 
board the Roman army, which was surrounded at Clupea ; but on the 
return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The 
Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landing in Lilybseum under 
Hasdrubal, son of Haimo. The Romans built a new fleet. 
254. Capture of Panormus by the Romans. In the following 
year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and laid waste 
the coast. On the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it was almost 
annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the 
naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 
251. Victory of Panormus 

over Hasdrubal under the consul Csecilius Metellus, who at 
his triumph in Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. 
The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period 
subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties 
inflicted upon him by the Carthaginians, probably an invention of a 
later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged 
Lilybceum in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 
249. Sea-fight at Drepanum 

defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number 
of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed 
by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second 
time, abandoned naval warfare. 

248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily. The Car- 
thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Barcas (i. e. 
lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against 
the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then 
on Eryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through 
the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally 
built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatius 
Catulus won the decisive 
241. Victory at the .ffigatian Islands 

(opposite Lilybseum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. 
Peace : I. The Carthaginians gave up all claims to Sicily. II. 
They paid 3200 talents ($4,000,000) war indemnity in ten years. 
The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov- 
ince ; the smaller eastern 1 part continued under the supremacy of 
Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. 

1 The territory of Syracuse, Acrce, Leontini, Megara. Helorum, Netum, 
Tauromenium. Comp. Marquardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth., IV. 91. 



112 Ancient History. B. c. 

241 (?). In this period, probably, occurred the democratic reform 

of the constitution of the centuries, concerning the de- 
tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this is clear : 
that the right of first vote was taken from the centuries of equites 
and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote 
(centuria prcerogativa) was determined by lot. It is probable that the 
centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the wards (tribus). It 
is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- 
haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- 
lished for each class (p. 92), and in this manner the preponderance 
of the first class was abolished. 1 
238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries 

and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- 
thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time 
united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards 
conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present 
the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 
229-228. War with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the 

piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and 
their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A 
Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, 
and compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept 
the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, 
abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a 
tribute. The Greeks attested their gratitude to the senate by admit- 
ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries 
(p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of 
Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corcyra, 
Apollonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- 
newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of Illyria by L. 
JEmilius Paullus. 
225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul 

brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes 
inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by 
numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 
70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two 
consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. 
Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and annihilated 
in the 
225. Battle of Telamon, 

south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. Atilius 
Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were 
captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans 
entered Gallia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Boii, submitted. 
The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated 
the Insubres. After two more victories in the following year (222) 
the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- 
subres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded 
tb* iortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 

1 Becker, Rom. Alterth. II. 3 , p. 9, foil. 



B. c. Roman History. 113 

road tc Spolelium was extended across the Apennines to the Adri- 
atic Sea, and along the coast to Ariminum (ViaFlaminia'). Further 
measures for the firmer establishment of their power in Cisalpine 
Gaul were interrupted by the 

218-201. Second Punic War. 1 

Causes ; Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of 
Carthage, springing from her recent acquisitions in Spain, and the 
efforts of the party of the Barcse to take revenge on Rome. 

Special causes : The conquests of Hamilcar Barcas in south- 
ern and western Spain (236-228) being successfully pursued after 
his death by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, the Romans concluded a treaty 
with the Grecian cities Zacynthus or Saguntum, north of Valencia, 
and Emporice, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and Com- 
pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor 
cross the Ebro with the purpose of making further conquests. 
After the murder of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of 
Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. 
In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the 
Carthaginian government, Hannibal conquered and destroyed Sagun- 
tum (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. 
A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy 
in Carthage was followed by a declaration of war on the part of the 
Romans. 

The plan of the Romaiis to land their main army in Africa, while a 
second army should engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was 
thwarted by 
218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy 

by land. 2 Leaving a sufficient number of troops in Spain, 
Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 50,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 
elephants, traversed Gaul not far from the coast by way of Narbo 
(Narbonne) and Nemausus (Nimes). The Roman consul P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio, who had stopped at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, 
heard of Hannibal's march, but his attempt to prevent the Cartha- 
ginians from crossing the Rhodanus (Rhone) with a division of his 
army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the 
river above Avenio (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul 
sent his brother Cn. Scipio with the main part of the army to Spain, 
while he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy 
(Pisce). Hannibal marched up the Rhone to Vienna, then turned 
eastward through the territory of the Allobroges and Centrones, where 
he forced a way with great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the 
pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions 
and severe losses reached the valley of the Dora Baltea with about 
26,000 men and a few elephants. In upper Italy a small Roman 
army was engaged with the revolted Gauls. Hannibal defeated the 
consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the cavalry and light- 
armed foot soldiers, in the 

1 Also called the Hannibalic War (Bellum Hannibalicwm). 

2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical ques* 
tions have been settled by the Englishmen Wickham and Cramer. 

8 



114 Ancient History. B. c. 

218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticinus, a northern branch of 
Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- 
years-old son, the future "Africanus." Reinforced by the 
Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 
218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other 
Dec. consul, Tib. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled 
from Sicily before the commencement of his African expedi- 
tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the 
remnant of the Roman force threw itself into the fortresses 
Placentia and Cremona. 
In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of 
the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 60,000 joined his army. In Rome two 
new consular armies were placed in the field for the next campaign. 
One under Cn. Servilius took the Via Flaminia to Ariminum in Um- 
bria, the other under C. Flaminius the Via Cassia to Arretium in 
Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- 
nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the 
Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert 
Rome, he crossed the Apennines, and marched, unexpectedly to the 
Romans, through the swampy regions about the Arno. Severe losses. 
Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this inarch he flanked the Roman 
defensive position. The consul Flaminius followed him in all haste, 
and allowed himself to be decoyed by Haimibal into a narrow pass. 
In the 

217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, 
the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- 
oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the 
defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- 
pointment of Q. Fabius Maximus as dictator. Hannibal, how- 
ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletium 
after an unsuccessful attempt to surprise it, traversed Umbria across 
the Apennines to Picenum and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his 
army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- 
munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. 
His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- 
filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. 

After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions 
with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the 
Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia, and 
passed by Luceria to Arpi. Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence 
his nickname Cunctator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken 
the Carthaginian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed 
the Apennines again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which 
he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and 
obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Volturnus, where Hannibal 
gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he 
had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to 
Apulia. 

Meantime the military conduct of Fabius Maximus had so dis- 
pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army 
to the independent command of M. Minucius f master of the horse., 



b. c. Roman History. 115 

who had had a fortunate skirmish with the Carthaginians, as a second 
dictator. 1 The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and 
only saved from complete annihilation by the first dictator, Fabius 
Maximus. 

The consuls for 216 were the veteran general L. .ffimilius Paul- 
lus, elected by the optimates, and the incompetent C. Terentius 
Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the 
offensive against Hannibal with an army of 86,000 Romans and allies. 
On the day when he had the decisive vote in the council of war, Varro 
imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous 
position. The Romans suffered in the 

216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aujidus), the most terri- 
ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them 
more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. JEmilius 
Paullus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. Varro, with a small 
troop, escaped to Canusium. 

In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul 
was almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- 
nites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman 
alliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannse. 

Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning 
for the families of the fallen was limited to thirty days. Hannibal's 
ambassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance 
to the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men 
and all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part 
out of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- 
lus, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- 
mand of the new army, which joined the remnants of the army of 
Cannse. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. 
The Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumce, and Nola. 

Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (III.) of Macedonia, 
and Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse. 
Haimibal went into winter quarters at Capua. 

215. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius 
Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clau- 
dius Marcellus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 

215. Battle of Nola, 

Marcellus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal 
was obliged to assume the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 
men, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- 
forcements from Spain was prevented by the successful 

213-211- "War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in 
Spain. 

The Romans, under P. Scipio and Cn. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, 
Hannibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- 
trated the Carthaginian territory as far as the Baztis (Guadalquivir). 
There they defeated the Carthaginians in two encounters at Illiturgi 

1 Established bv an inscription found in 1862. See Mommsen, Rom. Geach. t 
1.6, p. 599, note. " 



116 Ancient History. b. c. 

hud Intibili, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 212, 
in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing the 
Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax, king of western 
Numidia. The alliance with Philip of Macedon likewise brought no 
help to Hannibal. The 

214-205. First Macedonian war 

was successfully conducted by the Romans with scanty forces. 
The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal of 
landing in Italy. In 211 the Romans brought about a league of Gre- 
cian states against Philip, under the lead of the iEtolians, which was 
joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains of 
Pergamus. The war was, on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. In 
206 peace was concluded between Philip and the Romans, against the 
wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate. 

The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hannibal, as 
the 

214-210. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided by 
Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction of 
the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat and 
disease in the swampy lowlands of the Anapus, 
212. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a brave 
resistance (Archimedes). 
In Italy Hannibal gained possession of Tarentum through treachery 
(212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Death 
of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in Samnium. Hannibal advanced to 
Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capua, 
after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucania and Apulia, 
but retired to Tarentum. The Romans again laid siege to Capua. 

In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in this same 
year, 212. Both Scipios were defeated and killed by the Cartha- 
ginians and their ally, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nu- 
midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over the 
Ebro. 

211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He was 
repulsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the siege 
he marched through Samnium to the territory of the iEqui on the 
later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, and 
encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas /). Finding the 
Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigh- 
borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. 
211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, 

who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-three citi- 
zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was de- 
prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rhe- 
gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian allies 
abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. 
VJ.0. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who fell in 
Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with procon« 
sular powers (Livius, XXVI. 18). 



B. c. Roman, History. 117 

In Italy Hannibal gained a victory over the proconsul Cn. Fulvius 
at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agrigentum, slaugh- 
tering the Carthaginian garrison and selling the populace as slaves, 
and reduced the whole island under their power. In Spain Scipio 
crossed the Ebro (209) and conquered New Carthage. 
209. M. Marcellus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- 
nibal, gained a victory over him. in a second battle on the fol- 
lowing day. Q. Fabius Maximus captured Tarentum ; 30,000 
Tarentines were sold as slaves. Hamiibal retired to Meta- 
pontum. 
208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Venusia. Great ex- 
haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in 
its own country, now in its tenth year. 
In Spain Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought 
a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdrubal, and was unable to prevent 
him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Hannibal. 

Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in inciting 
the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) 
to prevent his union with Hamiibal, who was advancing to meet him 
through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was 
sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C. Claudius Nero against Hannibal. 
Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between Nero and Hannibal ; 
the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped 
by Canusium. Nero, who had followed him, left a part of the army 
to watch Hannibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by 
means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in 
the bloody 

207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaurus. 
Death of Hasdrubal. On receipt of the news of this defeat 
(the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha- 
ginian pickets), Hannibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain 
victory of Scipio at Bcecida over Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. 
206. After completing the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain 
by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret 
alliance with Massinissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. 
For the following year 
205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily 
for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of 
Hannibal, landed at Genoa with the remnants of the Spanish 
army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. 
At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 
204. Scipio landed in Africa. Massinissa, who had been driven 
from his throne by the Carthaginians, and by Syphax, husband 
of HasdrubaVs daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined 
Scipio. 
203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and Syphax by a night 
attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations 
for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago 
from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal em- 
barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- 
diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal 
negotiations between Scipio and Hannibal the 



118 Ancient History, B. c. 

202. Decisive battle of Zama 

was fought, wherein the Carthaginian army was defeated and 
annihilated. Hannibal escaped to Hadrumetum. 
201. Scipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- 
ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all 
Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the 
kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute 
of 200 talents ($250,000) for Jifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc- 
tion of all ships of war except ten. 5. No war to be undertaken 
without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Scipio, who received 
the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumph in Rome with a 
splendor never before witnessed {Syphax). 

The Italian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede large 
portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- 
prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini 
dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. 

In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls and 
the Ligurians, 

200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- 
gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained 
their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- 
pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis- 
padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- 
minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in part 
reorganized. Via JEmilia from Ariminum to Placentia. 

Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It was 
divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later Tarraconensis ; and 2. Hispa- 
nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- 
ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war. 
In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over the 
Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections 
soon began again. A victory of the prsetor L. jEmilius Paullus (189), 
and another, still more important, gained by the prsetor, C. Calpur- 
nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania 
ulterior. The victories of Q. Fulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- 
chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. 

200-197. Second Macedonian "War. 

Cause: A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate 
maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. 
King Attains of Pergamus, the inhabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- 
sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (III.) 
of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antiochus III. was warring with 
Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. 

In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in Illyria, 
under P. Sulpicius Galba. The Roman fleet guarded Piraeus and 
threatened Eubcea. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven 
from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the 
JEtolians and afterwards by the Achaians, carried on the war witk 
varying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc- 



b. c. Roman History. 119 

tiiis Flamininus, took command of the army. He subdued Epirus, 

got into the rear of Philip |s strong position, and defeated the king 

in the 

197. Battle of Cynoscephalse (Kwos Ke<£aAcu, in Thessaly). 
Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of 
Greece, and in general all possessions outside of Macedonia 
proper, and to pay 1000 talents ($1,250,000) in ten years. He 
was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and live ships of 
war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without 
the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- 
tius Flamininus proclaimed, under general rejoicing, the de- 
cree of the Roman senate declaring the Greek states free 
and independent. The majority joined the Achaean league. 
The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of Nabis, 
tyrant of Sparta, hoping thus to counterbalance the Achsean 
league. 

195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- 
ried out by the influence of Hannibal. The oligarchs defamed 
Hannibal before the Roman senate, which demanded that he be 
delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 

192-189. War with Antiochus III., of Syria. 

Cause: Interference of the king of Syria in Grecian affairs, and 
of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court 
of Antiochus. 

Antiochus, deceived by the iEtolians who had fallen out with Rome, 
and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began 
the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in 
Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasse, whence he went to Eubcea. Most of 
the Greeks, especially the Achsean league, remained true to the Ro- 
mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes of Perga- 
mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. 
Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glabrio, in Epirus (191) and 
march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Cato, conqueror 
of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, 
surprised the iEtolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the 
consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, 
who escaped to Chalcis with a few soldiers, and there took ship for 
Ephesus. The Romans besieged the iEtolians in Naupactus ; their 
fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antiochus at Chios. In the 
following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, 
under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Eurymedon, 
and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a 
naval victory at Myonnesus. 

A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, 
L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio 
Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Hel- 
lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 

190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, 

not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king concluded peace in 



120 Ancient History. B. c. 

the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and of 
his Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 
Eubcean talents ($19,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of 
Hannibal, who, however, escaped. This peace struck the kingdom of 
the Seleucidse from the list of great powers. The Roman senate 
having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- 
sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes 
of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the 
Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. 
Manlius Volso), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In 
Greece the iEtolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- 
tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- 
rels continued among the Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all 
cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but 
scanty remuneration for his services in the war against Syria. 
183 (?). Death of Hannibal. He poisoned himself at the court of 
Prusias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed- 
Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linternum, 
whither he had retired after he and his brother, Lucius, had been ac- 
cused by M. Porcius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. 
180. The lex annalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides 
a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule 
offices : sediles, 37 years ; prretor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first 
Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by 
the public treasury, but by the sediles, which at once closed the office 
to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, 
and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- 
leges of the nobility (p. 102). 

171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the 
Macedonian monarchy. 

Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the 
Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried 
forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his 
brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus 
informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. 

During the first three campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on 
the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty 
against the allied Achseans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to 
actual desertion. At last L. -ZEmilius Paullus, son of the consul who 
fell at Cannae (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- 
cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated 
Perseus in the 
168 Battle of Pydna. 

Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus 
fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph 
of iEmilius Paullus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im- 
mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the tributum. 

Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed 
into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of emi- 



B. C. Roman History. 121 

gration nor of intermarriage (commercium et connubium) being allowed 
them. Genthms, king of Illyria, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- 
ing soon conquered (168), that country was divided into 3 tributary 
districts with federal constitutions. Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 
towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. 
The Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- 
tion of subject clients. 1000 Achseans of high standing, among whom 
was the historian Polybius, were carried to Rome for examination 
(167), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- 
veillance. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and 
Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during 
the war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the 
mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and 
Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- 
man ambassador, C. Popillius Lcenas, arrogantly and insultingly or- 
dered Antioclius IV., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. 
He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide 
before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 

149-146. Third Punic War. 

Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power 
had begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Rome 
any reparation for several losses of territory which they had sustained 
at the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The 
Roman senate, on the instigation of M. Porcius Cato (" Ceterum 
censeo Carihaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the 
peace. 

Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the 
Carthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their 
war-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and 
make a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- 
solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the 
part of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age 
or sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- 
tured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An 
attack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 
147. P. Cornelius Scipio .ffimilianus (son of iEmilius Paullus, 
adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed 
the command. He shut off the city completely on both the 
land and sea side. 

146. Capture and destruction of Carthage. 

Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted 

seventeen days. 
The remaining inhabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land 
from the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galatha (Galita), to 
Thence, on the Syrtis minor, was made a Roman province under the 
name Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell 
for the present to xhe allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri^ 
umph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). 
148-146. Fourth Macedonian War, 



122 Ancient History. e. c. 

against Andriscus, who gave himself out as Philippus, brother of Per- 
seus (Pseudo-Philippus), and incited the Macedonians to rise against 
the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured by 
Q. CcEcilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman province 
(146). 

146. Achaean War. 

Cause : Return of 300 Achaeans from Italy, after an imprisonment 
of 16 years (p. 121). The anti-Roman party was thereby strengthened 
in all cities. Incited by Critolaus and Diceus, the Achaean league be- 
gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate 
pronounced the dissolution of the League. 

Victory of Metellus over Critolaus at Scarphea in Locris. Diceus 
summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, and 
armed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummius 
in the 

146. Battle of Leucopetra. 

Corinth, the chief city of the Achaean league, was occupied 
by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome, 
and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city 
was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public 
land. 

Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. 

The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and 
allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and juris- 
diction), but in such a way that they were subordinated to the governor 
of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 
80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name 
Achaia. 

At the close of this epoch Home possessed eight provinces 
1. Sicilia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania cite- 
rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 
6. Illyricum (168). 7. Africa (140). 8. Macedonia (146), and Greece 
{Achaia). 

The first four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so 
that, counting the prcetor urbanus and the prcetor inter cives et peregri- 
nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six praetors 
elected every year. Later, however, it was decreed that all six (after 
Sulla, 8) praetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, 
4 (6) to preside over the standing courts (qucestiones perpetuce). Of 
these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis), was established in 
149 by the lex Calpurnia ; to this were added down to the time of 
Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining 
office (de ambitu), over high treason (de maiestate), over embezzle- 
ment (de peculatu). Sulla created courts for the trial of cases of 
murder and poisoning (de sicariis et veneficiis) of forgery of wills and 
of counterfeiting (de falso). 

For the year succeeding their year of office the praetors went as 
pro-praetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot 
The propraetors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces 



B. c. Roman History. 123 

which were considered quiet, and which could be administered with- 
out any considerable military force. Those which were still the 
scene of warfare were assigned to one of the consuls in office, or to a 
proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of 
command prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperium proro- 
gare) or an ex-consul (yir consularis) or an ex-prsetor (yir prcetorius) 
being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later 
period distinguished into proconsular and proprcetorial. 

The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen~ 
eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many 
cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal 
government (civitates liberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded 
with the Roman people (fosdus, hence civitates fcederatai), or of a law 
(lex) or decree of the senate (senatus consultum). The taxes of the 
provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (publicani), mostly Ro- 
man citizens of the equestrian order (ordo equester) many of whom 
also did business in the provinces as bankers (negotiatores). 1 

In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for 
the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy 
in this epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. 
The last dictator with military power was appointed after the battle 
of Cannse (216), and the last nominated for municipal business was 
in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred 
dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall 
take measures for the public good according to their discretion." 
(Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat), which some- 
what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

Firm Establishment of the Universal Power of Rome. Pe- 
riod of the Civil Wars (146-31). 

143-133. Numantine War. 

Continuance of hostilities in Spain. War in Lusitania against 
Viriathus, 147-139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in 
northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia, 2 
which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable 
generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally 
P. Cornelius Scipio JSmilianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- 
mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen 
months' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- 
fence. 

133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. 

Scipio iEmilianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the 
fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, 
was reduced under Roman government. 
135-132. First servile war. 

Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly ill- 
treated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king Antiochu^ 

l Marquardt-Mommsen, Bom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. 
\ 2 The present Garray, an hour's walk north of Soria on the Bueroc 



124 Ancient History. B. c. 

and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main- 
taining himself in Henna and Tauromenium, but was finally captured 
and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. 

133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gracchi, 

excited by the political and social reforms urged through revo- 
lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caius 
Gracchus. 
Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves 
{Latif undid). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely increased 
by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especially 
with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was 
thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed in the capital a 
numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes 
and gifts of grain. Bad government of the optimates (p. 101). Fam- 
ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and 
places in the senate. 

Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con- 
sul of the same name (through his mother, Cornelia, grandson of the 
victor of Zama, p. 118), when tribune of the people proposed the 
reenactment of the Licinian agrarian law (p. 101) which had 
long been forgotten, with this alteration, that besides the 500 jugera, 
250 jugera of public land should be allowed for every two sons, and 
that damages should be paid for all buildings erected on land which 
had to be given up. Opposition of the tribune M. Octavius, who had 
been gained over by the senate, and whom Tib. Gracchus caused to be 
deposed by an unconstitutional popular decree. The agrarian law 
was accepted by the people ; its execution was entrusted to Tib. 
Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother C. 
Gracchus. 

133. Death of Attalus III., king of Pergamus, who left his kingdom 
and his treasures to the Romans. 
Tib. Gracchus proposed in the popular assembly, contrary to the 
common usage, according to which the senate had the disposal of this 
inheritance, to divide the treasures of Pergamus among the new land- 
owners, in order that they might procure the necessary equipment. 

Preparation of further popular laws of political tendency; shorten- 
ing of the time of military service ; extension of the right of appeal, 
etc. 

Tib. Gracchus tried, contrary to the constitution, to secure the election 
to the tribunate for the following year. The election was forcibly 
stopped by the senate. Tib. Gracchus and 300 of his followers 
were killed by the optimates, armed with clubs and chair-legs, and 
led by the consul, P. Scipio Nasica. 

129. After the defeat of Aristonicus, a pretender to the throne of 
the Attalidfe, by Perpcrna, Pergamus became a Roman prov- 
ince under the name of Asia. 
133-129. The division of the public lands was partially carried out 
as decreed. The struggle between the democracy and the 
optimates continued. The leader of the latter party, P. Scipio 
.Smilianus, husband of Sempronia, the sister of the Gracchi, 



B. c. Roman History. 125 

who had successfully opposed the proposals of the democratic 
129. tribune, C. Carlo, found dead in his bed (murdered ?). 
125. The democratic consul, M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had unsuc- 
cessfully proposed to grve the right of citizenship to all Ital- 
ians, was sent by the senate, which wished him out of the way, to 
assist the Massiliotes against the Gauls, by whom they were hard 
pressed. He laid the foundation of Roman supremacy in Transalpine 
Gaul. The immediate purpose of this occupation was the establish- 
ment of communication by land, between Italy and Spain. In 123 the 
proconsul, Sextius, founded the colony of Aquce Sextice (Aix). Gallia 
Narbonensis, so called after the colony Narbo Martins founded 
i:i 121, a Roman province. In 123 the Balearic Islands were sub- 
jected to Rome. 

123. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for two years quaestor 
in Sardinia, returned to Rome against the will of the 
senate, and was elected tribune of the people. 

Surpassing his brother in talent, force of character, and passionate 
energy, C. Gracchus not only took up again the latter's social reforms, 
but also brought forward, one after another, a series of proposals 
looking to a revolutionary alteration of the constitution. Had they 
been completely adopted, these innovations would perchance have 
substituted for the existing aristocratic republican government the 
rule of one man under the form of a democracy. Whether C. Grac- 
chus desired such a power for himself is, however, very doubtful. By 
the regular distribution of grain, at the expense of the state, C. Grac- 
chus attempted to make the prole tarii of the capital his willing tool 
in coercing the comitse. He was able to secure in 122 his election to 
the tribunate for the second time. 

The lex judiciaria transferred the jury-duty from the order of 
senators to that of the equites, and made the preexisting separa- 
tion between these two parts of the Roman aristocracy still more 
abrupt. 

The designation, " ordo equester," which belonged originally to those 
citizens only who actually did cavalry service, had been gradually 
extended to all who, in consequence of having property to the amount 
of at least 400,000 sesterces, were liable to such service. Since 129 
the senators were obliged, according to law, on entering the senate, to 
leave the centuries of equites. Hence " equites " denoted especially 
the members of the aristocracy of wealth, who were not members of 
the senate ; yet the young men of senatorial families continued to 
serve regularly in the centuries of equites. 

Encroachments of C. Gracchus on the administrative privileges of 
the senate by means of resolves of the popular assembly. The lex 
provocatio reenacted. Colonies sent out by decrees of the people in- 
stead of by decrees of the senate. C. Gracchus himself established 
the colony of Junonia on the site of Carthage. 

The absence of the all-powerful tribune from Rome was utilized 
by the senate, to secure him a dangerous opponent in the person of 
the tribune, M. Livius Drusus. The proposals of this tribune, in the 
interests of the lower classes, were constantly approved by the senate, 
with the view of undermining the popularity of Gracchus. 



126 Ancient History. b. c. 

122. The motion of C. Gracchus and his colleague, M. Fulvius Flac- 
cuSy to grant the Latins all the rights of citizenship, and the 
other Italians Latin rights, was defeated by the united opposi- 
tion of the senate and the lower classes of the capital. C. Grac- 
chus was not elected tribune for the following (third) year. 
121. Civil strife in the city, occasioned by a murder committed by 
one of the supporters of Gracchus. The democratic party oc- 
cupied the Aventine, which, being poorly defended, was stormed by the 
optimates. C. Gracchus and M. Fulvius were slain, along with 
several hundred of their supporters. Of the prisoners about 3000 
are said to have been strangled in prison. 1 Restoration of the power 
of the senate, and the former condition of things. After M. Livius 
Drusus had removed the ground rent, and repealed the law prohibit- 
ing the alienation of assignments of public land, and thereby given 
the optimates opportunity to repurchase their confiscated lands, a 
decree of the people, 111, converted all public lands in possession of 
citizens into the private property (not subject to taxation) of those who 
had formerly enjoyed the usufruct. 

111-105. 2 Jugurthine war. 

Cause: Micipsa, Massinissa's eldest son, had decreed in his will 
that after his death his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, should reign 
over Numidia in common with his nephew and adopted son, Jugur- 
tha. Quarrels of the kings. Attempt to actually divide the king- 
dom. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal and expelled Adherbal, who 
sought protection in Rome. A commission of the senate, which was 
bribed by Jugurtha, arranged a division of the kingdom entirely in 
Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Adherbal anew, defeated him, 
and besieged him in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the interven- 
tion of the Roman senate, Jugurtha captured Cirta, and put to death 
Adherbal and the whole male population of the city, including many 
Italians. Indignation at Rome, and, finally, at the instance of the 
tribune, C. Memmius, declaration of war against Jugurtha. 

Jugurtha bought from the consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, a peace, 
which the senate, upon the motion of Memmius, refused to ratify. 
Invitation of the king to Rome. Jugurtha appeared in the city upon 
guarantee of safe conduct, and gained partisans for himself by his 
money. When, however, he connived at the murder of Massiva, a 
third grandson of Massinissa, in Rome itself, he was banished from the 
city, and the war was renewed. 

110-109. The war was unsuccessfully conducted by the Romans. 
Jugurtha defeated a Roman army, sent it under the yoke, and 
dictated a peace which was repudiated by the senate. 
109. Q. Metellus, entrusted with the command, defeated Jugurtha 
on the river Muthul. The Romans occupied Numidia with 
two armies, one under Metellus, the other commanded by his 
legate C. Marius (son of a day laborer from the vicinity oi 
Arpinuni). 

1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, III. 101-130. 

2 Concerning the chronology of this war, see. Mommsen, III. p. 153, note. 



B. c. Roman History. 127 

108. After fruitless negotiations, another Roman victory. Jugurtha 

withdrew to the oases of the desert and induced the nomads of 
those parts (Goztuloz) to take up arms against the Romans. 
Pursued into the desert, he joined forces with his father-in- 
law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. 

107. Marius, in spite of the opposition of the aristocrats, received 
the consulate and chief command. He conquered the Gtetu- 
lians, repulsed a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus 
at Cirta, entered into secret negotiations with Bocchus through 

106-105. his quaestor, L. Cornelius Sulla, and secured the deliv- 
ery of Jugurtha into his hands. The captive king was led 
in triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison. Numidia 
was divided between Bocchus and Gauda, the last living grand- 
son of Massinissa. 

113-101. War against the Cimbri and Teutones. 

The Germanic, or, according to others, Celtic, tribe of the 
Cimbri (Chempho, i. e. warriors ?) made their way from the 

113. north into the Alpine regions, defeated at Noreia, in Corinthia, 
the consul Cn. Papirius Carlo, turned afterwards westward 
towards the Rhine, which they crossed, and defeated a Roman 

109. army under M. Junius Silanus, who had hurried to the aid 
of the Allobroges. Helvetian bands pressed into Gaul, and 

107. defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus on the Garonne. The 
Cimbri traversed Gaul in various directions, defeated and an- 
nihilated two large Roman armies under Q. Servilius Caipio 
105. and Cn. Mallius Maximus at Arausia (Orange) on the Rhone. 
Terror at Rome. Violent proceedings of the democratic 
leaders against the incapable generals of the optimates. 
Crnpio, Maximus, and others condemned. 
104-100. Marius elected consul five times in succession. 

The Cimbri meantime had crossed the Pyrenees and were wan~ 
dering aimlessly about among the Spanish tribes. Defeated by the 
Celtiberians, they recrossed the Pyrenees, traversed western Gaul, 
and gave Marius time to reorganize the Roman forces in the Provincia 
Narbonensis (Provence). Defeated by the Belgians, the Cimbri 
united with the Germanic tribes of the Teutones and with Helve- 
tian tribes (Tougenes and Tigorini). These three peoples resolved 
to enter Italy in two separate bands. The greater part of the 
Cimbri and the Tigorini were to invade Italy from the north, while 
the Teutones with the Ambrones, the best among the Cimbri, and the 
Tougenes were to force their way into Italy through southern Gaul 
(102). Marius attempted to intercept the latter band. By his posi- 
tion at the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, he covered the two 
military roads which at that time alone connected Gaul and Italy 
(Pass of the Little St. Bernard, and the shore road). Futile attempt 
of the barbarians to storm the Roman camp. They passed the camp 
on their way down the Rhone. Marius, following them, defeated 
and annihilated their army in the 

102. Battle of Aquge Sextiee (Aix in Provence, see p. 125). 
The king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was captured. Thereupoa 



128 Ancient History. B. c. 

Marius crossed the Alps to the assistance of his colleague 
Catulus, whom the Cimbri, having reached Italy by way of 
the Brenner Pass, had discomfited upon the Adige and driven 
behind the Po. The two consuls, having joined forces, ad- 
vanced across the Po and annihilated the Cimbri in the 
101. Battle of Vercellae (in campis Raudiis). Triumph of 
Marius, who was hailed by the multitude, " the third Romulus" 
" the second Camillus." 
At the time of the Cimbrian war occurred the complete abolition 
of the Servian military organization, according to which military 
service was principally a tax on property, but which had already 
been several times altered. This had also long been the principle 
upon which the military service of the Italian allies was regulated. 
Hereafter the system of a citizen levy was supplemented by a re- 
cruiting system, principally of course from the idle and lazy portion 
of the population, and by a system of reinforcements, whereby cavalry 
and light-armed troops were drawn henceforward from the con- 
tingents of subject and vassal princes. A separate military order 
was formed, which was distinct from the civil order and opposed to 
it. The organization of the army, the strength and divisions of the 
legions (henceforward 6000 men in 10 cohorts), also underwent im- 
portant changes. 

103-99. Second servile insurrection (in Sicily) under Tryphon 
and Athenion, which was put down by the consul, Manius 
A quillius, after a hard struggle. 
100. Marius, for the sixth time consul, aiming at the royal power, 
joined the leaders of the people, the praetor C. Servilius 
Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus, with the purpose of overthrow- 
ing the constitution. Saturninus, having gained the tribunate by 
murder, procured by violent means a division of lands among the 
veterans of Marius. The consul Q. Metellus went into voluntary 
banishment. The murder of C. Memmius, who had been nominated 
consul for the year 99, led to an actual contest in the forum between 
the optimates and the popular party. Saturninus and Glaucia 
being betrayed by their accomplice, Marius, were killed, with many 
of their followers. 

99. Q. Metellus recalled to Rome. Marius, hated by both parties on 
98. account of his equivocal conduct, went for a time to Asia. 
91. Three bills brought forward by the tribune M. Livius Dru- 
sus: 
1. Reform of the judicial department (lex judiciaria), which re- 
stored to the senate the places on the juries which had been taken 
from it, at the same time enlarging the senate by the addition of 300 
equites. 2. A new division of lands (lex agraria). 3.- Bestowal of 
the right of citizenship on the Italians (de civitate sociis dandd). The 
first two proposals were adopted by the comitise, but declared null 
and void by the senate ; as he was on the point of bringing the third 
before the people, Drusus was assassinated. 

The disappointment of the Italian allies who had fixed their hopes 
upon Livius caused the revolt of nearly all the Italians excepting the 
Latins, most of the Etruscans and Umbrians and some southern cities, 
and led to the 



B. c. Roman History. 129 

91-88. Marsian or social war. 

The Italians formed a federal republic under the name Italia, gov- 
erned by a senate of 500 senators from all Italian tribes. The capital 
was Corfinium. They appointed two consuls and twelve praetors. 

The terrible danger reconciled for the moment the parties at Rome, 
and caused the adoption of energetic measures : repeated levies of 
citizens, and enrollment of freedmen in the army. The best generals 
of both parties offered to serve under the consuls. 
90. At the seat of war in the north, Marius fought against the 
Marsians and the other Sabellian tribes, for the most part, 
successfully. The Roman consul, Rutilius, fell; Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo, defeated at first, was afterwards victorious. At the 
southern seat of war (Campania, Samnium, Lucania), the allies 
got so decidedly the better of the Roman consul, L. Julius 
Cazsar, in spite of the dashing forays of Sulla, that the Etrus- 
cans and Umbrians, in the north, who had before remained 
faithful, were encouraged to revolt. In order to prevent this 
a law was passed 

Granting the right of citizenship to the Latins and to all districts 

among the above peoples which had remained faithful (lex 

Julia). 
89. Successful conclusion of the war in the north. Superiority 

of the Roman arms in the south, especially under Sulla. 
By the lex Plautia-Papiria Roman citizenship was given to all Ital- 
ians who applied for it ; they were, however, included in 8 tribes only 
which were especially designated. The towns of Cisalpine Gaul 
which had municipal organizations received Latin rights {lex Pom- 
peia). 
88. By this concession the war in the south was also in the main 

brought to a close. 

88-84. First Mithridatio war. 

Cause : Mithradates or Mithridates VI., king of Pontus (120- 
63), had extended his power over the eastern shore of the Black 
Sea (Colchis) and along the Cimmerian Bosphorus (Crimea, and 
southern Russia). Kingdom of the Bosphorus. He had conquered 
Paphlagonia and Cappadocia and had provoked the interference of 
the senate by his encroachments on the client cities of Rome in Asia 
Minor. Already had Sulla, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, in 
92, taken arms against him, and reinstated a king in Cappadocia. 
A second expulsion of this king, and quarrels of Mithridates with the 
king of Bithynia, who was supported by the Roman consul M. Aquil- 
lius, led to war. 

88. Mithridates defeated Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, on the Am- 
nios, a branch of the Halys, defeated the Roman generals, Op- 
pius, Cassius, and Aquillius (the latter being cruelly put to death), and 
drove them out of Asia Minor. The Grecian cities of Asia joined 
him, and upon an order issued from Ephesus, put to death in one 
day all the Italians within their walls (80,000, or according to others 
150,000). 



130 Ancient History. b. c. 

Sulla, the consul for 88, was on the point of starting for Asia to 
attack Mithridates, when there broke out the 

88-82. Civil war between Sulla (optimates) and Ma- 
rius (democrats). 
Direct cause : the revolutionary proposals of the tribune P. Sul- 
picius, which were carried by the most violent means, and particularly 
designed to secure the division of the new citizens, Italians and f reed- 
men, among all the 35 tribes (ut novi cives libertinique in omnes tribus 
distribuerentur) . 

88. The populace under the control of demagogues deprived Sulla 
of the chief command and gave it to his opponent Marius, 
with proconsular power. Sulla marched with his army from Nola 
upon Rome and took the city by storm. Sulpicius and eleven other 
outlaws were killed upon the flight. Marius escaped by way of Min- 
turnce to Africa. 

Sulla restored the old order of voting in the centuries as it had 
existed under the Servian constitution, but had been given up in 241 
(p. 112), and decreed that in future the popular assemblies should 
not vote upon any measure which had not previously passed the 
senate. 

87. An optimate, Cn. Octavius, and a democrat, L. Cornelius Cinna, 
were elected consuls. Sulla, as proconsul, took the command 
in the Mithridatic war. 
During Sulla's absence Cinna endeavored to renew the laws of 
Sulpicius by violence. After a bloody struggle in the forum he was 
driven out by the optimates. He formed an army in Campania 
of armed bands of dissatisfied Italians, liberated siaves, etc., and 
uniting with the aged Marius, who had returned from Africa, with 
Q. Sertorius and Cn. Papirius Carbo, advanced upon Rome, which was 
compelled to surrender. Revolutionary reign of terror in the 
city. * Five days' slaughter at Marius' command of all optimates who 
had not fled (among others L. and C. Ccesar, M. Antonius, P. Cras- 
sus, Q. Catulus), confiscation of their property, plundering and out- 
rages of the armed bands. 

86. Marius (for the 7th time) and Cinna, consuls ; Sulla deposed 
in his absence. Death of Marius, over seventy years old. 
L. Valerius Flaccus was made consul in his stead and appointed 
by the popular party to the command of the Mithridatic war. 
87-84. Tyrannical government of Cinna at Rome, regardless of the 
newly restored democratic constitution. 
Meantime the outlawed Sulla was conducting the war against 
Mithridates. The latter had sent his general Archelaus with an army 
and fleet to Greece, where most of the cities joined him at once, par- 
ticularly Athens under the government of Aristion. 
87. Sulla landed with 30,000 men in Epirus, advanced to Bceotia, 
drove Archelaus and Aristion out of the country and besieged 
the former in Piraius, the latter in Athens. He defeated an 
86. army of relief from Pontus, and after a tedious siege captured 
March. Athens. Sulla defeated Archelaus, who had voluntarily 
evacuated Pirpeus, gone by sea to Bceotia, and joined the rein- 
forcements sent by Mithridates, in the 



B. c. Roman History. 131 

86. Battle of Chseronea and in the next year in the 
85. Battle of Orchomenus, after which he went into winter quar- 
ters in Thessaly. In the following year Sulla, supported by a 
fleet of ships, collected from Asia Minor and Syria by Lucullus, 
marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Helles- 
pont to Asia, and through the mediation of Archelaus concluded 
84. Peace with Mithridates in Dardanos. I. Evacuation of the 
Roman province of Asia, restoration of all conquests made by 
Mithridates, and reinstatement of the kings of Bithynia and Cappa- 
docia. II. Mithridates surrendered 80 ships of war and paid 3000 
talents. After the conclusion of peace, Sulla turned his attention to 
the Roman army of the democratic party which had gone to Asia in 
86 under the consul Flaccus, and, after his murder, had fought suc- 
cessfully under Fimbria (victory over the younger Mithridates at 
Miletopolis). A part of the army having gone over to Sulla, Fim- 
bria committed suicide, whereupon the rest of his army joined Sulla. 
After leaving these troops behind (milites Flaviani, two legions) under 
Jjicinius Murena, and inflicting upon the Grecian cities of Asia Minor 
the immense fine of 20,000 talents ($25,000,000), which Lucullus was 
to collect, Sulla sailed from Ephesus to Pirozus, went by land to Patrce, 
and thence by sea to Italy. 

83. Sulla landed with 40,000 men in Brundisium. After the death 
of Cinna (84), during a mutiny in Ancona, where he intended 
to embark against Sulla, his colleagues Carlo, the younger Marius, 
and Sertorius were the leaders of the democratic party ; never- 
theless for the year 83 neither of them, but instead two incapable 
men, L. Scipio and C. Norbanus, were elected consuls. Sulla, who 
upon landing was joined by the 23-year old Cn. Pompeius with 
an army of volunteers, formally guaranteed their rights to the Ital- 
ians and marched against the consuls. He conquered Norbanus on 
Mt. Tifata and opened negotiations with Scipio, in the course of which 
the entire army of the latter went over to Sulla. 

82. Sulla rested for the winter in Capua, and fought during the fol- 
lowing year against the younger Marius and Carbo, who had 
been appointed consuls. At Sacriportus Sulla defeated Marius, who 
retired to Prozneste, where he was surrounded by a division of the army 
mder Q. Ofella. Sulla perceived this, and passed rapidly through 
Rome to attack the democrats in Etruria, whither also a part of his 
army under Metellus, Pompeius, and Crassus had already forced its 
way from Picenum and Umbria and were pressing Carbo hard. On 
receipt of the news that strong Sanmite bands were advancing to the 
relief of Prseneste, Sulla went back to Latium, prevented the relief 
of Prameste, and repulsed an attack of the Samnites upon Rome 
(Nov. 82). More than 3000 prisoners were slaughtered at Sulla's 
command. Prseneste surrendered, the younger Marius was put to 
death by his slaves at his own command. The party of Marius in 
northern Italy had already been completely defeated at Faventia. 
Carbo and Sertorius fled. Sulla took terrible vengeance upon the con- 
quered cities and towns of Italy. The party of Marius in Spain was 
defeated at a later time by C. Annius and Valerius Flaccus ; in Sicily 
and Africa it was defeated by Pompeius, whom Sulla allowed to tri- 
umph, and saluted with the surname of Magnus. 



132 Ancient History. B. c 

82. Sulla had himself appointed dictator in Rome for an un- 
limited time, for the sake of reorganizing the commonwealth 
(dictator reipublicce constituencies, a power analogous to that of the de- 
cemvirs). 

Reactionary Reign of Terror. Proscription lists of the evil 
minded (lex de proscribendis malis civibus). The number of the out- 
lawed, on whose death a reward was set, and whose property was 
confiscated amounted to 4700. Allotments of lands to the veterans 
of Sulla and establishment of military colonies with full right of 
citizenship in the territories of cities of the hostile party, whose 
right of citizenship was abrogated. Liberation of 10,000 slaves be- 
longing to the proscribed citizens, and bestowal upon them of the 
right of citizenship (the so-called Cornelians'). 
83-81. Second Mithridatic "War, 

conducted by the propraetor Murena (p. 131), who occupied 
Cappadocia, which Mithridates, in spite of the peace, had not com- 
pletely evacuated, and invaded Pontus, where he was defeated by 
Mithridates and obliged to withdraw. The war ended in a treaty 
which was a renewal of the first peace. 

Attempt at a conservative aristocratic reform of the government 
in Home, by a series of laws originated by Sulla (leges Cornelice). 
Reorganization of the senate which had suffered severely from the 
proscriptions of the civil wars. It was now enlarged in an unprece- 
dented manner by the addition of 300 members to be chosen by the 
comitia tributa. Admission to the senate became a prerogative of the 
qusestorship. Henceforward 20 quaestors were annually elected by 
the comitia tributa. Abolition of the censors' privilege of revising 
the roll of the senate every five years, and consequently introduction 
of the irremovability of the senators. Thus the senate, for a short 
time, was indirectly chosen by the people, and acquired a representa- 
tive character. The places in the juries which C. Gracchus had 
transferred to the equites (p. 125) were restored to the senate. 
The privileges of the senate were further increased ; it acquired, in 
particular, the right of prolonging the term of office of proconsuls 
and propraetors, and of removing them. The comitice lost the power 
of electing the priests, which had been given them in 104, the 
priestly colleges receiving again the right of filling their own vacan- 
cies. On the other hand Sulla gave up the Servian order of voting, 
the restoration of which had been attempted in 88. Powers of the 
tribunes of the people reduced, misuse of the right of interpellation 
punished with heavy fines, the right of the tribunes to initiate roga- 
tions subjected to the approval of the senate ; it was also decreed that 
acceptance of the tribunate conveyed incapacity for accepting higher 
offices. Reorganization of the department of justice, increase of the 
perpetual courts (qucestiones perpetuce). Henceforward 8 prsetors. 
Criminal legislation (lex de sicariis, defalso, etc.). 
81. Sulla permitted the election of consuls, but continued to conduct 

the government under the title of dictator. For the year 
80. He caused himself and his companion in arms, Q. Metellus, to 
to be elected consuls, and so bridged the way to constitutional 
government. 



B. C. Roman History. 133 

79. Sulla voluntarily abdicated the dictatorship and retired to 

private ^ife. 
78. Death of Sulla, probably in consequence of a hemorrhage. 1 
78-77. Attempt of M. JEmilius Lepidus (consul with Q. Lutatiu* 

Catulus, 78) and the Marian M. Junius Brutus, to violently 
overthrow the work of Sulla. Lepidus, on his way from Etruria to 
Rome at the head of an army, was defeated on the Campus Martius 
by Catulus • defeated a second time at Cosa, he fled to Sardinia, 
where he fell sick and died. Brutus was forced by Pompeius to sur- 
render at Mutina, and was afterwards put to death. 

80-72. War against Sertorius, 

who in 83 had been allotted Lusitania and Spain as ois prov- 
ince. He had been driven out (82) by Sulla's generals, and, after 
leading a roving life as an adventurer along the coasts of Spain and 
Africa, returned to Lusitania. Here this party leader, alike distin- 
guished as statesman and general, had founded an independent sov- 
ereignty. Q. Metellus and even Cn. Pompeius waged for a long time 
unsuccessful war against him. He formed an alliance with Mithn- 
dates, but was murdered, in 72, by his subordinate Perperna. The 
latter was defeated and executed by Pompeius. 

73-71. War of the Gladiators and (third) Servile 
War. 

Bands of gladiators who had escaped from a gladiatorial school at 
Capua occupied Vesuvius under command of two Gauls and the 
Thracian Spartacus, and from this vantage-ground plundered and 
burned throughout the neighborhood. Reinforced by numerous 
slaves they grew to an army, and defeated four Roman armies in 
succession. Spartacus, who wanted to leave Italy, was forced by his 
companions to remain. He marched upon the capital. Terror in 
Rome. The praetor M. Licinius Crassus received the chief com- 
mand. The insurgents refrained from attacking Rome and wandered 
about Italy ravaging and plundering. Crassus defeated them in two 
battles, in the second of which, on the Silarus, Spartacus fell, fight- 
ing valiantly. The remnants of the bands were annihilated by Pom- 
peius, who was returning from Spain. 

In 70 the consuls M. Licinius Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Mag- 
nus restored to the tribunate the privileges which it had lost under 
Sulla (p. 132). The Aurelian law (lex Aurelia), passed during their 
consulate, repealed the enactment of Sulla that the jurors should be 
taken exclusively from the senators ; henceforth one third should be 
senators, two thirds men of the equestrian census (of these one half 
should be taken from the so-called tribuni-airarii). Already, in 72, 
the privilege of the censors, of revising the roll of the senate, which 
Sulla had abolished, had been restored (p. 132), and probably five 
years became again the length of the censors' term of office. 64 
senators were expelled from the senate by the censors Gellius and Len- 
tulus. 

1 He did not die of the so-called Phihiriasis. Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome. 
III. p. 390. 



134 Ancient History. B. c. 

78-67. War against the pirates. 

The result of the neglect of the Roman marine since the destruc- 
tion of Carthage, and of the oppression of the Roman governors in 
Asia was a constant increase of piracy. There gradually grew up 
an organized pirate-community, whose principal seats were Crete and 
Cilicia. The pirates controlled the entire Mediterranean as far as 
the columns of Hercules, and captured the vessels which were convey- 
ing grain to Rome. 
78. War had been waged with the pirates since 78, at first under the 

proconsul of Asia, P. Servilius, who destroyed many pirate 
75. cities, and in the year 75 took possession of Isauria, Pamphylia, 

Pisidia, for Rome, under the name of Cilicia, and afterwards 
74. under the prsetor M. Antonius, who possessed most extensive 

powers, but accomplished little, and in 71 died at Crete after 

being defeated by the Cretans. 
68. Metellus after a long contest, subdued Crete (province since 67), 

whose inhabitants lived for the most part, upon piracy. As 

piracy still continued, 
67. Pompeius received, on the motion of Gabinius (lex Gabinia), for 

three years unlimited command over the whole Mediterra- 
nean and its coasts for fifty miles inland ; the public treasuries and 
resources of all the provinces and client states were placed uncondi- 
tionally at his disposal. In three months Pompeius, in two short cam- 
paigns, completedly cleared first the western, then the eastern, 
Mediterranean of pirates, captured 3000 vessels, put to death 10,000 
pirates, destroyed their fortresses, captured 20,000 men, and settled 
them in the interior of the country. (Construction of Pompeiopolis in 
Cilicia.) 

74-64. Third Mithridatic war. 

Cause : Strained relations between the Romans on the one side, and 
Mithridates of Pontus and his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia, on 
the other. The latter took possession of the kingdoms of Cappadocia 
and Syria. When Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, likewise son-in-law of 
Mithridates, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, and Bithynia was 
made a Roman province, Mithridates declared war and occupied Bi- 
thynia. 

74. The conduct of the war was entrusted to the two consuls L. Lu- 
cullus, who was to enter the kingdom of Pontus through Phry- 
gia, and M. Aurelius Cotta, who sailed with the fleet for the 
Propontis. Mithridates defeated the latter by land and sea at 
Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus, which was relieved by Lu- 
cullus, who hastened from the south. 
73. Mithridates was forced to retreat with great loss. Lucullus as 
proconsul conducted the war successfully at sea ; then took the 
offensive on land, crossed the Halys (Kisil Irmak), traversed 
Pontus, defeated Mithridates at Cabira, and drove the king 
completely out of his kingdom. He took refuge with his son- 
in-law, Tigranes, while Lucullus, after a tedious siege, cap- 
72-70. tured the trading cities Heraclea, Sinope, Amisus, and occupied 
Armenia Minor. 



b. c. Roman History. 135 

Without waiting for authority from the senate, Lucullus opened 
war upon Tigranes, crossed the Euphrates into Armenia proper, de- 
feated Tigranes in the famous 

69. Battle of Tigranocerta, 

captured that city, and then turned against the two kings who 
had now joined forces. Lucullus forced the passage of the Euphrates 
(68) by a second successful encounter with the enemy, crossed the 
river here in its upper course for the second time, 1 marched through 
the Armenian plateau toward Artaxata, the residence of Tigranes, 
but was compelled by a mutiny among his soldiers (P. Clodius, broth- 
er-in-law of Lucullus) to begin a retreat over the Tigris to Mesopo- 
tamia, long before he had reached Artaxata. 2 

Lucullus took Nisibis by storm, but was obliged to cross to the 
right bank of the Euphrates again to rescue a division of the army 
which had been cut off (67). Meantime Mithridates returned to Pon- 
tus and defeated a Roman force under Triarius at Zela (Ziela). 
New mutinies in the army of Lucullus, who was at the same time in- 
formed that he was slandered at Rome, that he had been recalled, and 
the consul M\ Acilius Glabrio appointed in his stead. Glabrio went to 
Asia, but in consideration of the difficult position of affairs, did not 
assume command. Luexllus conducted the Roman army by a mas- 
terly retreat back to Asia Minor. 

Mithridates, having not only reconquered Pontus, but also com- 
menced to ravage Bithynia and Cappadocia, a law was passed at the 
instance of the tribune of the people, C. Manilius (Cicero's oration, 
pro imperio Cn. Pompeii, or pro lege Manilia), entrusting 

<56. Cn. Pompeius with the command in Asia with unlimited 
powers. 

Unfriendly meeting of Lucullus and Pompeius at Danala in Galatia. 
After concluding a treaty with* the Parthians, whom he guaranteed 
possession of Mesopotamia, Pompeius opened the campaign partly 
with new troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, and defeated him 
in the 

66. Battle by night on the Lycos (Yeshil Irmak), near the future 
Nicopolis in Armenia minor. Abandoned by Tigranes, Mithri- 
dates fled to Colchis. Pompeius followed as far as the Phasis, return- 
ing then to Armenia, where his ally, the king of the Parthians, had 
meantime made an inroad. At Artaxata Tigranes gave himself up 
to Pompeius, who permitted him to keep Armenia proper for his 
own kingdom, but took from him all his conquests, Syria, Phoenicia, 
Cappadocia, and imposed upon him a fine of 6000 talents. 
65. After an expedition northward, where he fought successfully 
with the Caucasian tribes, Pompeius for the second time aban- 
doned the pursuit of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the Tauric 
Chersonese (Crimea), and went to Pontus, and thence to Syria. 

1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 

2 The second victory of Lucullus was not gained near Artaxata. Ct, 
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 70. 



136 Ancient History. B. c. 

64-63. Organization of the Roman possessions in Asia, under Pom- 
peius. New Provinces : 1. Pontus, comprising Bithynia 
(already treated as a province since 74), the coast of Paphlagonia, 
and the western part of Pontus proper, along the coast. The rest 
of the kingdom of Mithridates was given to vassal kings. 2. Syria, 
comprising at first only the coast from the gulf of Issus to Damascus, 
afterwards considerably enlarged. 3. Cilicia, reorganized by Poni- 
peius, although it had been a province in name since 75. It included 
Pamphylia and Isauria (p. 134). These Asiatic provinces were much 
cut up, and surrounded by: (a) territories of autonomous cities} 
(b) princely and priestly sovereignties under Roman supremacy. 
The most distinguished of the vassal kings of Rome in the east were 
the king of Cappadocia, and Deiotarus, king of Galatia (p. 78). In 
Palestine, after the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple, Pompeius 
restored Hyrcanus, who had been driven out by his brother, as high- 
priest and civil governor, but made him tributary to Rome. 
63. Mithridates, who had busied himself with gigantic schemes of 
a land expedition to Italy, killed himself at Panticapceum, in 
the Tauric Chersonese, in consequence of the revolt of his son, 
Pharnaces. Upon receipt of this news Pompeius returned to 
Pontus. He confirmed Pharnaces in possession of the kingdom 
of the Bosphorus. 
61. Return of Pompeius to Italy. He dismissed his army at Brun- 
disium, and entered Rome as a private citizen. Magnificent 
triumph, lasting two days. 

66-62. Conspiracy of Catiline. 

Union of the democrats and the anarchists. Leaders of the demo- 
crats: M. Crassus and C. Julius Caesar (born 102 ?, son-in-law of 
China, outlawed by Sulla, afterwards pardoned, 67 qusestor in Spain, 
65 sedile, 63 pontifex maximus). Leader of the anarchists: L. Ser- 
gius Catilina, ex-prsetor, one of Sulla's executioners. The demo- 
crats dreaded the reconciliation of Pompeius, whose military dictator- 
ship was the work of their own hands, with the optimates. Hence 
they sought to overthrow the existing government before the return 
of Pompeius, by a violent revolution, while the anarchists, in part pro- 
letarians, in part young men of honorable families who were sunk in 
debt, hoped for plunder and confiscation of property. 

The Jirst conspiracy, in 66, according to which the consuls for 65 
were to be murdered, and Crassus made dictator, and Ccesar, master 
of the horse, failed of execution through the indecision of some partici- 
pants. At the close of the year 64, it was again renewed for the pur- 
pose of securing the election of L. Catilina and C. Antonius (also a 
former follower of Sulla) at the consular elections for 63, by the in- 
fluence of Coesar and Crassus, who were to remain in the background. 
Antonius alone was, however, actually elected; his colleague for 63 
was M. Tullius Cicero, a favorite lawyer and orator, belonging to 
no party unreservedly (born 106, 75 qusestor in Sicily, 70 prosecutor 
of Verves, 69 sedile, 66 praetor urbanus). The latter resigned before- 
hand to Antonius, who was deep in debt, the lucrative governorship 
of Macedonia^ thereby detaching him from the conspirators. 



b. C. Roman History. 137 

Formation of an insurgent army in Etruria, under C. Manlius, a 
comrade of Catiline; at Rome organization of the conspirators, who, 
at a given signal, were to fire the city, and thereby produce universal 
confusion. Plan of Catiline to murder his competitors at the con- 
sular election for 62, and the consul, Cicero, who would preside over 
the election. Cicero, informed of this by his spies, denounced the 
conspiracy in the senate, appeared on the day of the election sur- 
rounded by numerous armed guards, and defeated the election of 
Catiline. The latter's plan of having Cicero surprised and murdered 
in his own house was also betrayed and failed. 
63. Nov. 8. First speech of Cicero against Catiline 
delivered in the senate. 

Catiline left the city, and betook himself to the army of 
Manlius in Etruria. 
Nov. 9. Second speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. 
The accomplices of Catiline, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, 
Statilius, and Cceparius, were taken into custody on the 
strength of written proofs of guilt obtained by Cicero. 
Dec. 3. Third speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. 
Dec. 5. Fourth speech of Cicero against Catiline, in the senate. De- 
cree of the senate that the traitors be strangled in prison with- 
out trial and sentence (Ccesar opposed the resolution ; Cato's 
speech determined the vote), executed by the consul Cicero. 
Cicero greeted as pate?' patrice. 
The consul Antonius was entrusted with the conduct of the war 
against Catiline. His lieutenant defeated Catiline at Pistoria (62). 
Catiline and 3000 of his followers fell on the field. 
62. Caesar administered the prsetorship in Rome. A part of his 
large indebtedness having been paid by Crassus, he went for 
61. the year to Hispania Ulterior, as propraetor, where he laid the 
foundation of his military fame, and where he found means 
to discharge his debts. He returned bearing the honorary title of 
" imperator," but refused to triumph, in order that he might become 
a candidate for the consulship. The refusal of the senate to grant 
the allotment of lands requested by Pompeius for his veterans, 
led to a complete break between Pompeius and the government, and 
resulted in the so-called 

60. First Triumvirate, 

a reciprocal agreement of the three statesmen Pompeius, 
Caesar, and Crassus. They secured the election for the next year 
of 
59. Caesar as consul. 

As his colleague, the optimate M. Bibulus, and the senate op- 
posed the proposals brought in by Csesar for an agrarian law, espe- 
cially in the interests of Pompeius' veterans (lex Julia de agro cam- 
pano : ut ager campanus plebi divider etur), and the ratification of the 
organization of Asia, these measures were submitted to the popular 
assemblies and passed by them, without the approval of the senate. 
Violence offered Bibulus and M. Porcius Cato. Bibulus did not 
dare leave his house again during his year of office. Intimate 



138 Ancient History. b. c. 

friendship and close family ties between Caesar and Pompeius. 
Caesar's daughter, Julia, 23 years old, given to Pompeius in marriage. 
On the motion of P» Vatinius, tribune of the people, Caesar received 
by a popular decree the government of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyri- 
cum for 5 years, with extraordinary powers. At Pompeius' motion 
the astounded senate added Gallia Narbonensis (p. 125) to Caesar's 
province. A. Gabinius, a friend and military companion of 
Pompeius, and L. Piso, father-in-law of Caesar, were elected consuls 
for the following year. The execution of the agrarian law was en- 
trusted to Pompeius and Crassus. Before Caesar departed for his 
province, 
58. The absence of Cato and Cicero from Rome was procured 

by P. Clodius, tribune of the people, who had secured this 
office at the sacrifice of his patrician rank by hasty adoption into a 
plebeian family. Cato was appointed by a popular vote to take pos- 
session of the kingdom of Cyprus, which had been left to Rome by 
will. Cicero was driven to flight by the decree, " Whoever shall have 
caused the execution of a Roman citizen without legal sentence shall 
be punished with outlawry " (lex Clodia : ut qui civem Romanum in- 
demnatum inter emisset ei aqua et igni interdiceretur), and then banished 
by a second lex Clodia to a distance of 400 Roman miles from Rome. 
Clodius caused Cicero's house on the Palatine to be burned, and his 
Tusculan and Formean estate to be ravaged. 
58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar. 

Results of Caesar's eight years of brilliant warfare, and its 
meaning in the history of the world. 

1. Annihilation of the Celts, as a nation, for whose lasting Romani- 
zation Caesar opened the way. 

2. Creation of a dam which for four centuries protected the 
Romano-Hellenic civilization against destruction by the German bar- 
barians. 

3. Enlargement of the boundaries of the old world, not only by the 
immediate conquest, but also through the information obtained by 
Caesar's expeditions to Britannia and Germania. 

4. Acquirement of the means for accomplishing the change, now 
become necessary, of the Roman republic into a monarchy : the vet- 
eran legions and troops of the allied states, who had become at- 
tached to their general and expert in war. 

58. Victory of Caesar over the Helvetians, who had invaded Gaul, 
at Bibracte, 1 and over the German prince Ariovistus, N. E. 
of Vesontio (Besancon) in the vicinity of Muhlhausen in 
Alsace 2 (Caesar, Bellum Gallicum, I.). 

57. Subjugation of the Belgii. Annihilation of the Nervii in Hen- 
negau by a terrible battle on the Sambre, not far from Bavay 
(B. Gall. III.). In the southeast, occupation of Octodurus 
(Martigny), to secure the Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard. 

56. Subjugation of the Veneti in Armorica (Bretagne) by Caesar, 

1 On the site of the modern Aufun, according to v. Goler ; two miles west 
j)f Autun according to Napoleon III. (Vie de Cesar.) 

2 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 244, note. 



B. G. Roman History. 139 

after hard fighting on land and sea, and of the Aquitani by 
his lieutenant P. Crassus, son of the triumvir. In the north- 
east, successful war with the Morini and Menapii (B. Gall. 
III.). 
55. Caesar drove the Germanic tribes of the Usipetes and Tenchteri 
back across the Rhine. Passage of the Rhine on a bridge of 
piles, between Coblence and Andernach. After a stay of fifteen 
days on the right bank, Caesar recrossed the stream. (B. 
Gall. TV.) 
First expedition to Britain with two legions. Departure from two 
ports, one of which was Itius portus, E. and W. of Cape 
Grisnez, landing between Dover and Deal, probably at Walmer 
Castle. 1 (B. Gall. IV.) 
54. Second expedition to Britain, with five legions. Cassivelaunus, 
leader of the British Celts. Caesar crossed the Stour and the 
Thames (between Kingston and Brentford), while Cassivelau- 
nus attacksd the Roman camp where the ships lay. Retreat 
and embarkation of Caesar after he had received hostages. 
(B. Gall. V.) 
53. Insurrection of the Eburones under Ambiorix, and of other tribes. 

Caesar crossed the Rhine a second time. (B. Gall. VI.) 
52. General insurrection of the Gauls under the Arvernian, Vercin- 
getorix. Siege and capture of Avaricum (Bourges) by Cae- 
sar, occupation of Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) by Labienus. 
Unsuccessful siege of Gergovia, near Clermont in the Auvergne ; 
Caesar, compelled to retreat, united with Labienus. Siege of 
Alesia (Alise Sainte-Reine at Semur in the Dep. Cote d'Or, 
between Chatillon and Dijon) by Caesar, while the Roman 
army was in turn surrounded and besieged by the insurgent 
army of relief ; after a hard fight, complete victory of Caesar. 
Vercingetorix forced to surrender himself. He was exe- 
cuted at Rome, five years later (B. Gall. VII.). 
51. Completion of the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul (cruel pun- 
ishment of the insurgents). Ten legions located in detach- 
ments throughout the country held it in obedience to Caesar. 
While these magnificent feats of war were placing the older mili- 
tary fame of Pompeius in the shade, the latter was trying unsuccess- 
fully to master the anarchy at Rome. Leader of the ultra-demo- 
crats, the former tribune, P. Clodius (pp. 135, 138). In opposition to 
him the recall of M. Tullius Cicero was procured in 57, by the efforts 
of the tribune T. Annius Milo. In the same year M. Porcius Cato 
returned to Rome. The aristocratic reaction opposed the armed bands 
of Clodius, which patrolled the streets and forum, with the armed 
bands of Milo. The attempt of the republicans in the senate to free 
themselves from the influence of the rulers, and the resolution to 
revise the agrarian law passed during the consulate of Caesar, resulted 
in a renewal of the alliance of the three statesmen. 

1 Compare Heller, Ccesar's Expedition rwch Brittanien, in the Zeitschrift 
far ally. Erdhunde, 1865. According to v. Gdler, the first expedition started 
from Wissant near Cape Grisnez, the second from Calais. 



140 Ancient History. b. c. 

In 56 a meeting of the triumvirs Ceesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, 
and their followers (200 senators) took place in Luca. In conse- 
quence of agreements there concluded, the election of Pompeius 
and Crassus as consuls for 55 was carried by the use of force. A 
decree of the people (lex Trebonid) then assigned to Pompeius the 
government of both Spains for five years, and to Crassus that of 
Syria, while Csesar's command in Gaul was prolonged for Jive years 
more, and the payment of those troops which he had recruited on his 
own authority was assumed by the state. The Roman aristocracy 
was obliged to submit to these decrees. 

After the close of his year of office as consul Crassus went to 
Syria in 54, where he undertook in 53 an expedition against the Par- 
thians. He suffered a terrible defeat at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, 
and was shortly after killed by the Parthians during an interview 
with one of their satraps. Pompeius remained in Rome, and dele- 
gated the administration of his provinces to his legates. 

In 52 Clodius and Milo happening to meet on the Via Appia, a 
fight sprang up between their followers, during which Clodius was 
wounded, and then, at Milo's command, put to death. Clodius' 
corpse was carried to the Curia Hastilia, near the forum in Rome, 
and there burnt, together with the building. To put an end to the 
disturbances of the mob which followed this event, Pompeius was 
appointed "consul without a colleague" by the senate, and clothed 
with dictatorial power. Trial of Milo, who was condemned by the 
Jurors, in spite of Cicero's oration 1 in Ins defence, to be banished. 
Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. Breach between Csesar and Pompeius, 
whose connection had been previously weakened by the death of Julia 
(54). Pompeius selected his new father-in-law, Metellus Scipio, for his 
colleague in office, caused his governorship in Spain to be prolonged 
for five years, and deprived Csesar of two legions, urging the impor- 
tance of the Parthian war, which a victory had already ended. 

Pompeius openly reassumed the leadership of the republican aris- 
tocracy (lex de vi et ambitu). Csesar remained leader of the democ- 
racy, which under a constitution without representation led of neces- 
sity to monarchy. Demand of the senate that Csesar should resign 
his command before the expiration of the term which had formerly 
been granted him. Refusal of the senate to permit Csesar to stand 
for the consulship during his proconsulship, as had been allowed by 
the citizens. This brought about the 

49-46. Civil war between Caesar and Pompeius. 

The senate declared Csesar a public enemy (hostis) should he 
not disband his army within a given time. The tribunes of the peo- 
ple who favored Csesar fled to him at Ravenna. 
49. Csesar, with one legion, crossed the brook Rubicon, the boundary 

of his province, and thereby opened the civil war. Great con- 
sternation at Rome. Pompeius, who had only commenced his prepa- 
rations, and the greater part of the senate, fled to Brundisium. Csesar, 

1 Not the one which we have. This was written for the occasion, but the 
tumult and fear prevented its delivery. 



b. c. Roman History. 141 

reinforced by a second legion which had overtaken him, marched 
through Umbria, Picenum, where Domitius, at Corfinium, was obliged 
to surrender, and Apulia to Brundisium, to which he laid siege, after 
a third legion of veterans had joined him, and he had levied three 
new legions. Pompeius succeeded in conveying his troops, by two 
expeditions, to Greece, before the capture of the city. Caesar, unable 
to follow him from lack of vessels, commenced the construction of a 
fleet, and went to Rome. There he quieted the apprehensions of a 
return of the horrors of the first civil war. Magnanimous behavior 
toward his foes (Caesar, Bell. Civ. 1-33). 

49. Caesar went by land to Spain to subdue Pompeius' legates, 

Spring, leaving Trebonius to besiege Massilia. The legates of Pom- 
49. peius, Afranius and Petreius, were compelled to surrender at 

Aug. Ilerda (Lerida), N. of the Ebro, and their army was dis- 
banded (Caesar, Bell. Civ. I. 34-87). 
Varro, who commanded in Hispania ulteriora, threw himself into 
Gades (Cadiz), but most of the cities joining Caesar, he capitulated. 
On Caesar's march back to Italy, Massilia, which was suffering from 
starvation, surrendered on being threatened with a storm (Caesar, Bell. 
Civ. II. 1-22). Meantime Caesar's legate Curio had reduced Sicily 
to subjection. He then crossed to Africa, where he was at first victo- 
rious at Utica, but was afterwards defeated at the Bagradas by Juba, 
king of Numidia, who had declared for Pompeius, and fell in the 
battle (Caesar, Bell. Civ. II. 23-44). 

Caesar, during his absence, was proclaimed dictator at Rome 
by the praetor M. JEmilius Lepidus (on the authority of a new 
lex de dictatore creando), but abdicated the office after eleven 
days, and had himself appointed consul, with P. Servilius, for 
the year 
48. while that part of the senate which had participated in Pom- 
- peius' flight to Greece prolonged the term of office of Pom- 
peius and all the officials of the previous year. 
Caesar landed in northern Epirus, at Oricum, not far from the 
promontory of Acroceraunia, with a part of his army. The trans- 
ports which returned for the rest of the troops were mostly captured 
by the fleet of Pompeius; and the coasts of Italy being sharply 
watched, Caesar was placed in a situation of great difficulty, as M. 
Antonius was able to transport the second half of the army only after 
several months. His army being at last united, Caesar inclosed the 
army of Pompeius at Dyrrhachium by a long chain of military posts- 
Daily skirmishes, for the most part favorable for Caesar. At last 
however, Pompeius broke through Caesar's line. Caesar, defeated 
and compelled to retreat, went to Thessaly, whither Pompeius fol- 
lowed him, leaving Cato in Dyrrhachium. In the Thessalian plain 
was fought the 

48. Decisive battle of Pharsalus. 

Aug. 9. Caesar, with about 22,000 men, defeated and completely scat- 
tered the army of Pompeius, which had more than twice 
that strength; 20,000 men laid down their arms. Pompeius fled to 
the coast, and took ship for Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command 



142 Ancient History. B. G. 

of the minister of the young king, Ptolemaeus, he was murdered upon 
landing. Caesar followed Pompeius and landed in Alexandria with 
4000 men (Caesar, Bell. Civ. III.). 

Especial honors paid to Caesar in Rome (consulate for five years, 
tribunate for life, dictatorship for one year). Caesar having taken it 
upon himself, at Alexandria, to decide between the ten-year old Ptole- 
maius and his followers and his sixteen-year old sister Cleopatra, there 
broke out the so-called 

48-47. Alexandrine -war, 

an uprising of the whole population of Alexandria, sup- 
ported by the Roman army of occupation, which had been in garrison 
there since the restoration of the king Ptolemceus Auletes (55). Caesar, 
besieged in the royal palace, was in the greatest danger, from which 
only his reckless daring rescued him. He caused the Egyptian fleet 
to be set on fire, whereby the famous library of Alexandria (p. 77) 
was also burned. Caesar, with the help of an army of relief which 
arrived from Asia, defeated the Egyptian army on the Nile. The 
young king Ptolemaeus was drowned on the flight. The government 
was given to Cleopatra and her younger brother, under Roman su- 
premacy, and a Roman garrison was left in Alexandria. Caesar went 
to Asia Minor, and in a Jive days' campaign (veni, vidi, vici) ended 
the 

47. War against Pharnaces, 

son of Mithridates (p. 136), who had occupied Pontus, Arme- 
nia Minor, and Cappadocia. Caesar defeated him at Zela and forced 
him to fly. Pharnaces fell in battle against a revolted governor. 
Arrangement of the Asiatic relations. Deiotarus, who had fought 
against Caesar at Pharsalus, lost the greater part of his kingdom. 

Return of Caesar to Rome. After he had subdued a mutiny of the 
tenth legion, he undertook the 

47-46. War in Africa 

against the adherents of Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius, Scipio, 
Cato, Labienus, Petreius, king Juba. Caesar landed at Hadrumetum, 
where he was in great danger, since the larger part of his force did 
not arrive till later in consequence of a storm. After several unim- 
portant encounters Caesar defeated and annihilated the republican 
army, which far outnumbered his own, in the 

46. Battle of Thapsus, 

during and after which 50,000 of the enemy were slaughtered 
by Caesar's embittered soldiers. Scipio killed himself on the flight, 
Cato committed suicide in Utica, Petreius and Juba agreed to kill one 
another, in a personal contest. Juba struck Petreius down ; and being 
himself but slightly wounded, had himself killed by one of his slaves. 
Labienus and Sextus Pompeius escaped to the latter's brother, Cn. 
Pompeius, in Spain. 

A part of Numidia was united with the province of Africa by 
Caesar; the rest was given to Bocchus, king of eastern Mauritania. 

Return of Caesar to Rome, where he celebrated four triumphs, for 



b. c. Roman History. 143 

Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, Africa. Entertainments for the people, splen- 
did games, distribution of gold and grain. Csesar was appointed dic- 
tator for 10 years, and censor without a colleague, under the title 
prafectus morum, for 3 years. Correction of the Calendar, by an 
extraordinary intercalation of 67 days in the year 46; thereafter there 
was a solar year of 365^ days (a leap-year every four years ivithout 
exception). 

46-45. War against the sons of Pompeius, 

Cucbus and Sextus, and the rest of the Pompeian party. Al- 
though repulsed before Corduba by Sextus Pompeius, Caesar by great 
exertions defeated both brothers in the 

45. Battle of Munda, north of Ronda, between 

Cordova and Gibraltar, in which he was obliged to lead the 
legions against the enemy in person. Over 30,000 Pompeians were 
slain, and among them Labienus, Varus, On. Pompeius ; Sextus es- 
caped. 

After Csesar had returned to Rome he caused the senate to appoint 
him at first (45) consul for 10 years, afterwards (44) dictator, and 
censor for life. Since 48 he had borne the new official title Impera- 
tor, which denotes the possessor of the imperium, the concept of civil 
and military official power. 1 This included full control of the finances 
and the military power of the state, and also the right of coining 
money with the portrait of the ruler of the state. As prafectus morum 
(censor) Csesar had the right of enlarging the senate ; as pontifex 
maximus he possessed the control of religious affairs ; as possessor 
since 48 of a power resembling that of the tribunes, he had the ini- 
tiative in legislation, and was the inviolable (savrosanctus) protector 
and representative of the people. Accordingly the position and 
powers of the new democratic monarch were almost exactly analo- 
gous to those of the old Roman kings. 

The people retained, nevertheless, at least in form, a share of the 
sovereignty, all laws affecting the constitution requiring, as under the 
republic, to be ratified by the comitise, which were, however, easily 
controlled. The senate became again, what it had been under the 
kings, an advisatory council only. Csesar brought the number of 
members up to 900 and increased the number of qusestors from 20 to 
40. Election to this office, it will be remembered (p. 132), admitted 
the holder to the senate. The democratic monarch, however, exercised 
to the utmost his right of appointing senators, and thereby gravely 
offended the nobility. Ex-centurions, Spaniards, Gauls, sons of freed- 
men, etc., found through him admission to the senate. The monarch 
had an extensive right of nomination at the elections of magistrates. 

Restoration of the old royal jurisdiction exercised by decision 
of the monarch alone, from whose sentence there was no appeal, — a 
right which, of course, was but rarely exercised (trial of Ligarius and 
of Deiotarus). In general the ordinary judicial system was retained. 
Prsetors increased to 16. 

Reorganization of the military system. Creation of legati legionis 

1 Cf. Moinmsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. 468, note. 



144 Ancient History. B. a 

pro proztore, appointed by the imperator. Reform of the financial ad- 
ministration. The system of tax-farming was exchanged for the im- 
position of direct taxes. Allotment of the Italian domains, particu- 
larly among the veterans. Wide-spread colonization in the provinces 
with the view at once of Latinizing the provinces, and of diminishing 
the number of proletarians in the capital. Commencement of mag- 
nificent buildings in Rome. New system of provincial administration 
for the protection of the provinces against the extortions of the gov- 
ernors. Sumptuary laws. Criminal legislation. Arrangement of the 
relations of debtor and creditor. 

Project of a war against the Parthians, to revenge the Roman de- 
feat under Crassus (p. 140) and add to the security of the eastern 
boundary of the empire. Conspiracy of some 50 republican aristo- 
crats against Caesar's life (M. Junius Brutus, C. Cassius. Longinus, 
C. Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Tillius Cimber, etc.). 

44. Assassination of Caesar during a session of the 
March 15. senate, 

which on that day was held by chance in a hall in the theatre 

of Pompeius. Caesar fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot 

of a statue of Pompeius. 
For a moment the senate took the reins of government again, and 
decreed that Caesar's laws should continue in force, and offered an 
amnesty to his murderers. But the populace of the capital, incited 
by the .funeral oration of M. Antonius, violently assaulted the conspira- 
tors. The leaders of the conspirators departed for the provinces which 
the senate had assigned them : M. Brutus to Macedonia, Cassius to 
Syria, Decimus Brutus to Gallia cisalpina. 

In Rome M. Antonius (consul with Dolabelld), having possession 
of Caesar's papers, assumed an uncontrolled power under pretext of 
executing the will of the dictator, and caused Macedonia, the prov- 
ince of M. Brutus, to be assigned to himself with five of the six 
legions which Caesar had dispatched thither for the Parthian war. 
Dolabella received Syria, the province of Cassius, while the provinces 
of Crete and Cyrene were assigned to M. Brutus and Cassius. Anto- 
nius, moreover, procured from the popular assembly the province of 
Gallia cisalpina, which the senate had refused him. In the hope of 
balancing the usurped power of Antonius, the senate entered into 
negotiations with the eighteen-year-old C. Octavius, Caesar's grand- 
nephew and adopted son, henceforward known as C. Julius Caesar 
Octavianus. The latter, who was beloved by his soldiers, took com- 
mand of two legions. Antonius, endeavoring to eject Decimus Bru- 
tus from his province of Gallia cisalpina, there broke out the so-called 
44-43. "War of Mutina. 

As was advocated by Cicero in the Philippics, Hirtius and 
Pansa, consuls for 43, and the young Octavianus as propraetor, were 
sent against Antonius, who was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina 
(Modena). Pansa died at Bononia of a wound received in the first 
encounter ; Hirtius fell as victor in the 
43. Battle of Mutina 

against Antonius, who was now declared an enemy of the state 



b. c. Roman History. 145 

(hostis). While Decimus Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, 
Octavianus, now sole commander of the army which was originally 
the army of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his appoint- 
ment to the consulship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the 
conspirators, and their sentence (lex Pedia). This accomplished, he 
took the field, in appearance, against Antonius, with whom he 
already had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was 
abandoned by his troops, captured upon his flight, and put to death 
at Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 

43. The Second Triumvirate was formed 
Nov. avowedly for the " Organization of the State " (triumviri rei- 
publicce constituendce) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepi- 
dus, the former magister equitum of Csesar. This new assumption of 
power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. 
New proscriptions ; several hundred senators and 2000 equites 
outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The 
triumvirs began 

43-42. War against the republican party 

and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Bru- 
tus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his 
province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolabella in Syria and 
driven him to commit suicide. In the 

42. Battle of Philippi 

in Thrace, Antonius, who commanded the right wing, de- 
feated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while 
Brutus with the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavia- 
nus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius 
caused one of his slaves to put him to doath. Brutus, being defeated 
by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself . 

Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then fol- 
lowed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at 
Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out 
the promised allotments of land among the veterans. Quarrels 
between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 

41-40. Civil war of Perusia 

between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius 
Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the 
other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavia- 
nus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul 
and Spain, while Lepidus was put off with the government of Africa. 
Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, 
which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octavia, the 
sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided 
between the triumvirs, so that 

40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepi- 
dus Africa. 
39. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to 
make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who had created a naval 
10 



146 Ancient History. B. c. 

empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut off the grain supplies from 
Rome. By the treaty of Misenum Sextus Pompeius received Sicily, 
Sardinia, Corsica (?) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reim- 
bursement for the loss of his paternal property. 

Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part with 
Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Par- 
thians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in 
person (36), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 

38-36. Sicilian war 

between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Octavianus, aban- 
doned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone 
at first, and suffered great loss at sea. A difference between Octa- 
vianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, and 
Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, 
while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against 
Sextus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got 
the upper hand of Sextus, especially since M. Vipsanius Agrippa 
commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa at 
Myloz, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, Lepidus, 
who had landed in Sicily, demanded this island for himself. Aban- 
doned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, who 
permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sent 
him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa- 
vianus. 

35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpine tribes, the Dal- 
matians, and the Illyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, 
king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alex- 
andria. 

New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter pre- 
sented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the 
sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a 
popular decree removing Antonius from his command and declaring 
war upon Cleopatra. 

31-30. "War between Oct avian and Antonius, 

also called Bellum A ctiacum. 
During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesus, 
Athens, and at Patrce in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations 
and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under 
the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleo- 
patra, which outnumbered it, in the 

31. Battle of Actium, 

Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and 
was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered 
to Octavianus without a blow. 

30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth con- 
sulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a 

revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched through Syria to 
.Egypt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, killed himself on hear- 



Bo C. Roman History. 147 



ing a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced 
that Octavian spared her only that she might grace his triumph in 
Rome, poisoned herself. Octavianus made Egypt a Roman province. 
Octavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Caesar (p. 143). 
29. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple 
of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history. 1 



FIFTH PERIOD. 

Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the 
Western Empire. 2 

31 (30) B. C.-476 A. D. 

B. C. A. D. 

31-68. The five Julii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, 
31-14. Caesar Octavianus Augustus. 

The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Sublime), which was 
given Octavianus by the senate in 27 b. c, is the name by which, as 
sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also 
became, like Princeps, 8 Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the 
Roman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- 
tion of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. 

Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high 
census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. 
The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held 
for a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a 
special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). 
The prafectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the 
prafectus praitorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine 
(afterwards ten) praetorian cohorts, became the most important of- 
ficers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. 

B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising 
those quiet provinces which could be administered without an army 
{Africa, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta, with Cy- 
renaica, Biihynia, Sardinia, Hispania Bcetica), and imperial, including 
those where an army was maintained, and which were administered 
by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- 
tania ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narbonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- 
tania, and Belgica • Germania superior et inferior, Mozsia, Syria, Cilicia, 
Cyprus, jEgyptus). 4 Aerarium and Fiscus. 

Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Maece- 
nas (f B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets : 
P. Vergilius Maro (70-19 b. a), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 b. c.) ; 

1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [Trans.] 

2 Peter, Rom. Gesch. III. 3 , 1871, and Rom. Gesch. in Mrzerer Fassunq, 
2d ed. 1878, p. 475 foil. 

3 Princeps was, it is true, not an official title. About the meaning of this de- 
signation and its relation to the dignity of the Princeps senatzis, see Mar- 
quardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth. II. 2 , 2, p. 750 foil. 

4 Later many changes were made in this, division. All provinces created 
after 27 b. c. were assigned to the emperor. 



148 Ancient History. B. c. 

the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-54 b. c), Albius Tibullus 
(54^19 b. c. ?), S. Propertius (49-15 b. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (born 
43 B. C, 9 A. d. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinus, f 17). 
The historian T. Livius (59 b. c-17 a. d.) 

Family of Augustus. 



C. Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 b. 
Married : 


C, f 14 A. D. 


1. Claudia. 


2. Scribonia. 3. Livia. 
Tiberius and Drusus, 
Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nero 
and Livia. 
Julia, t a. d. 14. 




Married : 




1. Marcellus, 

son of Octavia. 

t b. c. 23. 


2. M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 
f B.C. 12. 

1 


3. Tiberius. 


Gaius Caesar. Lucius C 

f A. D. 4. f A. D. 


sesar. Agrippina. Julia. 
2. f a. D. 33. f A. D. 28. 


1 

Agrippa Postumus. 

f A. D. 14. 



Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria because 
of her excesses. Gaius Ccesar and Lucius Ccesar were adopted by- 
Augustus B. c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the 
elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of 
the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa 
Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to 
the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. 
Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, 
was adopted by Augustus, A. D. 4. 

29. Mozsia subjugated (made a province in 16 b. c. ?). 

27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the 
operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sick- 
ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 

25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. JElius 
Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of 
the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Praztoria (Aosta). 

23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dig- 
nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 

22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Pe- 
tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 

20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king PTira- 
ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored 
the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. 
Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe- 
rius. 

19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cantabri 
and Astures. 

15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary 
of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a Roman province, 
along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum, row Augsburg) 
and Noricum. 



b. c.-a. d. Roman History, 149 

12-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior 
and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 
27), Drusus undertook four campaigns hi Germany proper, 
and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus 
died upon the way back. 

8-7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- 
mand, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a 
portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine 
to recognize the supremacy of Rome. 

Birth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our 
era?). 

6-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- 
bod was interrupted by an insurrection of the Illyrian and Pan- 
nonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a 
severe contest. 

10. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- 
ince. 

9(?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated 
in the Teutoburg forest, by Arminius (Hermann ?), a 
leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. 
Lex Papia Poppaia and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 

14. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 

14-37. Tiberius {Claudius Nero), 

step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- 
picious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from 
the comitice to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) 
was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- 
eign. Rewards given to informers (delatores). 

Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of 
the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the 
younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annales. I. 16-49). 
14^-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. 
On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed 
at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman 
victory in the battle on the Campus Idistaviso (according to 
Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the elves ") over Arminius, 
between Minden and Hameln. In spite of the success of the 
Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. 
Ann. II. 5-26). 
17. Germanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- 
rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made 
Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- 
son, administered by Piso?). 
23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By 
uniting the prsetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus 
laid the foundation of the future power of the praetorians. 
23. Sejanus poisoned Drusus, son of Tiberius. 
27. Tiberius took up his residence in Capreaz (Capri). 
29. Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia f. 



150 Ancient History. A. C* 

31. Trial of Sejanus, who was executed in company with many others 
(accomplices in the conspiracy?). Macro succeeded Sejanus 
in the favor of Tiberius. 

37-41. Caligula (properly, Gains Ccesar Germanicus), 
youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caligula 
(bootling), a cruel, half-crazy tyrant (oderint, dum metuantl). Self- 
adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expedition 
with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39-40), which ended 
with the collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder the 
praetorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, 

41-54. Claudius {Tiberius Claudius Nero), 

son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a weak- 
minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the freed- 
men Narcissus and Pallas) and his wives : 1, the shameless Messalina, 
and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippina, 
daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI. and XII.). 
43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the command 
of A. Plautius- and his legate, T. Flavius Vespasianus ; the 
southern part of Britain became a Roman province (Tacitus, 
Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31-40). 
During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporated : 
in Africa, Mauretania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (42); 
in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judcea, which had been a de- 
pendent kingdom 41-44, became in 44 a province again. 

Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by Cn. 
Domitius (he took the name of Nero at his adoption), and to appoint 
him his successor in place of his own son by Messalina, Britannicus, 
whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claudius 
showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoned 
him. 

54-68. Nero {Nero Claudius Cwsar Augustus Germanicus), 
proclaimed imperator by the praetorians, was for the first 
five years of his reign under the guidance of the praefectus prceto- 
rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the influence of 
his mother Agrippina from becoming predominant. Law against 
informers. 

With Nero's passion for the freedwoman Acte, and afterwards for 
Poppcea Sabina, the opposition between himself and his mother grew 
stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poisoned 
(55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened to 
make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from him 
his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and married 
Poppaza Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appeared 
in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawling 
servility of the senate (Tac. Ann. XIII.-XVL). 
31. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius Paulinus. 
)'8-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the capture 
and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corbulo forced King 
Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. 



A. d. Roman History. 151 

64. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting 
three days, destroyed a large part of Rome (set by Nero's 
command, in order that he might rebuild the city more beau- 
tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of 
Christians of setting fire to the city. 

64. First persecution of the Christians. 1 

Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero 
(domus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to 
the Esquiline. 

65. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f). 

68. Revolt in Gaul (C. Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, 

where the governor Sulpicius Galba, then 73 years of age, was 
proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed 
himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- 
hood of Rome. 

68-69. Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba), 

June-Jan. whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers 
(Tac. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 

69. Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho Titianus), 

Jan.- Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. I. II.) The legions 
on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 

69- Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius), 

Apr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremona, 
entered Rome and made the city the scene of his senseless 
gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 

69-96- The three Flavian emperors. 

69-79. Vespasianus (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) 

proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinius Muci- 
anus, governor of Syria, at first in Alexandria, afterwards by his own 
legions and those of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the 
war against the Jews who had been in revolt since 66. Vespasianus 
transferred the military command to his son, Titus, and went to Rome, 
after a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already 
put Vitellius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and 
order in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 
69-71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius?) 

Civilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), 

one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first 
declared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, 
but against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained 
the assistance of a large part of the Roman soldiers in those parts. 
Claudius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced 
by Germans from the other side of the Rhine, thirsting for booty, 
he advanced far into Gaul. A great part of the Gallic tribes joined 
• But see Overbeck, Studien z. Gesck. d. alien Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 



152 Ancient History. A. D. 

him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independent 
Gallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Rome was secure, 
however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken out 
between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end to 
the revolt, and again reduced all Gaul under the Roman supremacy. 
70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumphal arch of 
Titus in Rome. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Col- 
osseum). 

78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made prepara- 

tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasianus 
was succeeded by his son, 

79-81. Titus {Titus Flavins Vespasianus), 

called, because of his admirable qualities, amor et delicice gen*, 
eris humani. Punishment of informers. 

79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii by 

ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of the 
Roman fleet at Misenum. 

80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brother, 

81-96. Domitianus {Titus Flavins Domitianus), 

a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign against 
the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstand- 
ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the construc- 
tion of the Roman boundary wall between the Rhine and the Danube 
was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were settled 
upon public land along its course {agri decumates). 
81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby the 

Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. Agricola 

recalled by Domitian through envy. 
86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bought 

peace of Decebalus by a yearly tribute. 
93. Death of Agricola (poisoned by order of Domitian ?). Cruel 

persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. 
96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empress, 

who was in fear of her own life, and the prsefectus praetorio, 

Petronius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. 

96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 

96-98. Nerva {Marcus Cocceius Nerva), 

a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mur- 
derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, re- 
called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted and 
appointed as his successor 

98-117. Trajan {Marcus Ulj)ius Traianus), 

governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in the 
Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of the 
throne of the Caesars who was not an Italian. Excellent 
ruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome {Forum 
Traianum) and throughout the empire. 



A. D. Roman History. 153 

101-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's 
refusal to pay the tribute promised by Domitian. Trajan 
crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- 
lus and forced him to make peace and cede a portion of his 
territory. 
105-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a 
stone bridge across the Danube (at Turnu Severinu), crossed 
the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebalus 
killed himself. Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,000 
gladiators are said to have appeared. 
Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and Transyl- 
vania (Siebenburgen), made a Roman province. Settlement of nu- 
merous colonists in Dacia, from whom the present Roumanians de- 
rive their descent. It would be more correct to say their language 
only, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- 
lachia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan 
at Rome completed in 113. 

The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and 
S. of Damascus and of Judcea to the northern end of the Red Sea, 
as the Roman province of Arabia. 1 

114-116. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of 
the Parthian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- 
potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. 
Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian 
monarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed 
down the river to the Fersian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king 
over the Parthians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus 
(Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 

117-138. Hadrian {Publius Mlius Hadrianus), 

adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- 
ministrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces 
of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euphrates formed 
the eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in 
Mcesia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who 
conspired against him. 

121. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- 
pire, with a visit to Gaul. 

Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site 
of the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venus 
and the goddess Roma, and the Athenaeum; in Athens, the city of 
Hadrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent villa at Tibur 
(Tivoli). 

In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Scots. 
Collection of the edicts of the prsetors (edictum perpetuum) com- 
menced by the jurist Salvius Julianus. 

132-135. Revolt of the Jews on account of the foundation of the 
colony of JElia Capitolina (p. 12). 

Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. ^Elius Verus, and 

1 That is, Arabia Petrcea, so called from its capital, Petra, not the whole 
peninsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. Ant. Tab. XII. 



154 Ancient History. A. D. 

appointed him Ccesar (p. 147) ; but as Verus died before him he 
adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus under the condition that the latter 
should adopt in place of a son his nephew, the young M. Annius 
Verus, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Verus, 
the son of the deceased Csesar, JElius Verus. 

138-161- Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Antoninus 

Pius). 

Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, however, 
vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbarians. 
Antoninus had his adopted son, M. Aurelius, educated by phil- 
osophers of the Stoic school. 

161-180. Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), 

a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupil of Corne- 
lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned in 
common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Lucius 
Verus. 

162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verus, 
who, however, soon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiochia, 
while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquered 
Artaxata, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleucia 
and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made a 
Roman province. 

166. Plague and famine in Italy. 

166-180. War with the Marcommani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelius 
fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who con- 
stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bar- 
barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, 175. 
Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestrian 
statue in his honor, which still adorns the Capitol. Before 
he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empire 
along the Danube secure, he died in Vindobona (Vienna). He 
was succeeded by his degenerate son 

180-192. Commodus, 

who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute, 

entrusted the government for the most part to the prsef ectus prsetorio, 

abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, and 

was finally murdered by his intimates. 

193-284. Imperators for the most part appointed by the 
soldiers. 

193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after three 
months by the praetorians, who placed on the throne in his 
stead 

193. Didius Julianus, who, among all competitors, promised 
them the largest present. The Illyrian legions proclaimed 

193-211. Septimius Severus, 

who was recognized by the senate and maintained himself 



A. d. Roman History, 155 

against the other pretenders (Pescehnius Niger in the East, Clodius 
Albinus in Gaul). Successful campaigns in Mesopotamia. Improve- 
ments in the administration of justice through the jurist Papinianus. 
In 208 expedition to Britain against the Scots. Restoration of the 
Roman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius Sev- 
erus died in Eboracum (York). His son, 

211-217. Caraoalla (Antoninus Bassianus) 

murdered his half-brother and co-regent Geta along with 

thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papinianus. By 

the Constitutio Antoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all 

inhabitants of the provinces, for the sake of the higher taxation which 

could then be imposed. 

Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the 
Goths (wrongly called Getce) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- 
ants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians. 
Murder of Caracalla, His successor, 

217. Macrinus, 

purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed 
as imperator the fourteen-year-old 

218-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogabalus is a corruption), priest 
of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son 
of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- 
bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and 
grandmother. He adopted his cousin, the young Bassianus 
Alexianus, who succeeded to the throne after the murder of 
Elagabalus by the prsetorians, under the name of 

^22-235. Severus Alexander. 

Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and 
Julius Paullus. His strictness with the soldiers led to several 
mutinies, in one of which Ulpianus was murdered. 
25.6. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of 
the Arsacidae and the foundation of the new Persian em- 
pire of the Sassanidae by Artakshatr (Artaxares, corrupted into 
Artaxerxes, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new 
frar broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- 
cording to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success ; according to 
the Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to 
have been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- 
ander on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 

235-238. Maximinus Thrax, 

a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition 
across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile 
the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 

£37. Gordianus I., 

then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- 
dianus II., co-regent. They were both defeated by the prsefect of 
Mauretania: the son fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 



156 Ancient History. A. d. 

The senate at Rome, which had already taken sides against Maximi- 
nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Bal- 
binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, the 
thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus I. Maximinus Thrax was 
killed by his own soldiers at the siege of Aquileia. The praetorians 
at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, Pu- 
pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 

238-244. Gordianus III. 

was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (241). 
The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Mkitheus 
(Timesitheus), whom he made prsefectus praetorio, and whose guidance 
he followed. After the death of his father-in-law Gordianus was 
murdered by the new pra^fectus pra3torio, 

244-249. Philippus Arabs, 

whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at the 
demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned to 
Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). 
248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation 

of Rome. 
Revolt of the Mcesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed one 
of their officers imperator. 

249-251. Decius, 

whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled by 
the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated and 
killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 

250. General persecution of the Christians. 

Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeated 
the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle after 
he had followed them across the Danube. The legions elected 

251-253. Gallus, 

who soon had his co-regent, Hostilianus, son of Decius, put to 
death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the em- 
pire. Gallus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, 

253. ^Emilianus, 

who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He was 
succeeded by 

253-260. Valerianus, 

the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ap- 
pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war with 
the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, espe- 
cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Italy 
but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danube. 
Unsuccessful expedition of Valerianus against the Persians ; defeated 
at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried about 
as the slave of King Artaxerxes. His reign and that of his son, 



A. D. Roman History. 157 

260-268. Gallienus, 

was disturbed by the appearance of a great number of pretend-* 
ers to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particularly 
of the Goths, who came in ships from the Black Sea. Confusion 
throughout the empire ; the so-called " time of the thirty tyrants." 
Two pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, 
Tetricus in Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria. 
The latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by 
Gallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathus 
(267) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege 
to Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, 
and was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was 
put to death by 

268-270. Claudius II., 

whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Ala- 
manni and the Goths, and was succeeded by 

270-275. Aurelianus. 

He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of the 
province of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boundary of 
the empire ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported 
to Moesia, a part of which was now called Dacia {Aureliand). Aure- 
lian repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad 
into Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new 
wall around Rome, which included the enlarged imperial city (271, 
completed in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia 
and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- 
tured Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued 
the East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated 
and captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called "Restorer 
of the universal Empire " (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an 
expedition against the Persians. At the request of the army the 
senate elected the senator 

275. Tacitus 

imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia 
Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, 
who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 

276-282. Probus, 

who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- 
dals, entered Germany, and strengthened the wall between the Rhine 
and Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as 
mercenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- 
ing swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was 
murdered by them. The preefectus praetorio, 

282-283. Carus, 

succeeded. He appointed his sons Carinus and Numerianus 
Caesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the Sarmatians, and per- 



158 Ancient History. a. d. 

ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persians, 
after having captured Ctesiphon. 
284. Numerianus, 

who had accompanied his father to the East, was murdered by 

his father-in-law. 

284. Carinus, 

who had remained in the West, fought at first with success 
against 

284-305. Diocletianus, 

who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carinus 
was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, who 
created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and thence 
ruled the East, entrusted the administration of affairs in the 

285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co-regent or Augustus, 
who took up his residence for the most part in Mediolanum 
(Milan). 

292. Diocletian appointed two more Ccesars : 1. Constantius 
Chlorus, who was obliged to divorce his wife Helena and marry 
the step-daughter of Maximianus, received the government of 
Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and dwelt commonly in Augusta 
Trevirorum (Trier), while Maximianus was appointed to the 
government of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who became 
Diocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyri- 
cum, including Macedonia and Greece. 
296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius sup- 
pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against the 
Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) he 
gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to the Tigris 
again. Maximianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Con- 
stantius defeated the Alamanni. 
303. General persecution of the Christians, 

which Constantius discouraged in his province. 

305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to Salonce in Dalmatia, after 
he had obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. 

Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desire 
of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and of 
Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over, 

Severus and Maximinus were appointed Csesars, the first receiv- 
ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. 

306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena), 
Constantine, assumed the administration of his father's prov- 
inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Csesar. He 
fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhile 
the praetorians at Rome chose Maxentius imperator, where- 
upon his father, Maximianus, reassumed the dignity he had 
unwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, three 
Augusti and three Csesars. 

307. The Csesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale- 

rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted by 
his soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Licin- 



A. d. Roman History. 159 

ius co-regent and Augustus in his stead, and Constantine therefore 

assumed the same title, so that there were now six Augusti in the 

empire. 

310. In the struggle that followed, the aged Maximianus was cap- 
tured in Massilia and put to death by command of Constantine. 
Galerius died of disease (311). 

War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts 
in favor of the Christians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin 

312. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Rome, by Constantine 
(Hoc signo vinces /), and perished by drowning as he attempted 
to cross the Tiber. 

Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- 
mained up to his death a catechumen. 

313. Alliance between Constantine and Licinius, who married 

Constantine's sister. Constantine took the field against the 
Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and 
killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now 

313-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the 
empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314, 
however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated 
in two encounters, was obliged to cede Illyricum, Macedonia, 
and Achaia to Constantine. 

323. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- 
feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, 
and was executed (324) by Constantine's command. 

323-337« Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. 

Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the 

expense of paganism. 
325. First general (cecumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, 

in Bithynia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ("Apetos), 
formerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Christ was 
not of the same nature, but of like nature only (dfioiovatos), with God 
the Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Athanasius of Alexandria, 
according to which Christ was of the same nature (S/xoovcrios, consub- 
stantialis) with God the Father, was declared a dogma of the Church 
by the Symbolum Nicoznum. 

330. Constantine selected Byzantium (Nova Roma, Constantino- 
polis) for the capital. The empire was redistricted. The 
four great prefectures, Oriens, Illyricum orientate, Italia, Gallia, were 
divided into 13 dioceses, these into 116 provinces. 1 New hierarchy 
of officials, 7 superior court offices. Council of state (consistorium prin- 
cipis). New arrangement of the taxes. 

Cruelty of Constantine in his family. His eldest son, Crispus, and 
one of his nephews executed through the plots of his wife, Fausta, who 
was herself put to death. 

Constantine, before his death, divided the administration of the 
empire among his three sons as Augusti, and two nephews as Ccesars. 
After his death, in Bithynia, the two Caesars were put to death by 
Constantius. The three sons of Constantine redivided the empire at 
Constantinople. 

1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. XII. 



160 Ancient History. A. D. 

337-340. Constantinus II. received the West (the prefec- 
tures of Italia, Gallia, and a part of Africa). 

337-361. Constantius received the East, the prefecture 

Oriens. 
337-350. Constans received the prefectures of Illyricum 

orientale and a part of Africa. 
Constantius carried on a long and indecisive war with the Persians. 
Constantinus II. attacked his brother Constans, and fell at Aquileia. In 
350 Constans also died, so that Constantius, after the conquest of the 
usurper Magnentius (353), again united the whole empire. Julianus, 
a cousin of the emperor, who was appointed Csesar, fought success- 
fully with the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks, and assigned the 
Salian Franks lands in northern Gaul. Constantius died on an expe- 
dition against 

361-363. Julianus, 

who had been proclaimed Augustus by the legions. He is 
known as the apostate (apostata), because he was an adherent of the 
heathen philosophy and abandoned Christianity, hoping to bring about 
a reaction in favor of the heathen cult, which he wished restored in a 
purified form. Julianus defeated the Alamanni and the Franks, re- 
stored the fortresses which had been erected against them along the 
frontier, and defeated the Persians at Ctesiphon, but died of a wound 
on his return. The soldiers raised the Christian 

363-364. Jovianus, 

to the throne. He ceded the greater part of Mesopotamia to 
the Persians. Christianity reinstated in the privileges which Con- 
stantine had granted. After the sudden death of Jovianus the legions 
raised 

364-375. Valentinianus I. 

to the throne. He appointed as co-regent first his brother, 

364-378. Valens, 

an Arian, who governed the East from Constantinople, and 
afterwards, for the West, his son, 

367-383. Gratianus, 

who, upon his father's death, acknowledged as co-regent for 
the administration of the West his four-year-old half-brother, 

375-392. Valentinian II., 

who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. 

375- Beginning of the migrations of the Teutonic 

tribes (p. 170). 
378. After the death of Valens at Adrianople in battle against the 

West Goths, Gratianus created the heathen 



A. d. Roman History, 161 

379-395. Theodosius 

co-regent, and entrusted him with the administration of the 
East. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe 
illness, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged 
to accept them as allies (foederati) in their abodes in Mcesia and 
Thrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed 
by the legions in Britain, 
383-388. Clemens Maximus, 

whom Theodosius recognized as co-regent under the condition 
that he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. 
In 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodo- 
sius, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aqui- 
leia, and executed him. 
390. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius 

(7000 executions). On this account bishop Ambrosius of 
Milan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Christian com- 
munion, until he had done penance. 
392. After the murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogastes, and after 

the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arbogastes set up, had 
394. fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arbogastes 

had put himself to death, the whole empire was, for the last 

time, reunited under 

394-395. Theodosius. 

After his death the division of administration into an eastern 
and a western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became 
a permanent division of the empire. 

395-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also 
called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial 
vicar, Rufinus. Capital Byzantium or Constantinople. 
The 

395-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna im- 
perial residence after 402, under 

395-423. Honorius. 

Guardian and chancellor, the Yandal Stilicho, murdered in 408 
by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After 
the death of Honorius the usurper 

424. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally over- 
thrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the six- 
year-old 

425-455. Valentinian III. 

made imperator, the government being conducted at first by 
his mother Placida, sister of Honorius, in his name. Valen- 
tinian was murdered by 

455. Petronius Maximus, 

who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed 
shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173). 
11 



162 Ancient History. A. D. 

The throne was usurped by 

455-556. Avitus 

who was soon deposed by Reeimir, a military leader of the 
German mercenaries in the Roman army. Reeimir placed upon 
the throne 

457-461. Majorianus, 

whom he afterwards deposed in favor of 
461-465. Libius Severus, 

after whose deposition (?) 
465-467. Reeimir conducted the government without the pretence 

of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed 

467-472. Anthemius 

upon the throne, who was succeeded by 

472. Olybrius. 

Reeimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court 
interposed and placed 

473. Glycerius 

on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 
473-475. Julius Nepos, 

also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 
Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son 

475-476. Romulus Augustulus 

upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome's 
first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial 
line in the West, being deposed by 

476. Odovaker (Odoacer), 

military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himself 
ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern 
emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy 
(p. 173). 

§ 4. TEUTONS. Aryan. 

Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in 
Europe. 

I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps 
N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows : N. German 
Ocean, Baltic • E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Car- 
pathian Mts. ; S. the Alps ; W. the Rhine. This region falls into three 
physical divisions : 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided 
into the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose 
deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 
245 ). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc., Lake 
Geneva, Lake Constance, Lake of Lucerne ( Vierwaldstattesee)> etc. 2. 
A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the 
sea, and embracing the present Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Sax- 



s. c.-A. d. Teutons. 163 

ony, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching to the sea, 
and including the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern 
Germany comprises 2 and 3. The peninsula of Denmark has belonged, 
in historic times, politically to Scandinavia and Germany. 

Through the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends 
from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in 
Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercynia silva, in- 
cludes the Jura, Vosges, Schwarzivald (Black Forest) Taunus, Thiiringer 
Wold, Erz Gebirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose 
convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Dan- 
ube S. of this range, and the depression on its northern base extend- 
ing from the Lahn to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route be- 
tween Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which 
give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups : 
Bohemian Forest, forming the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, ft. of 
the Frankfort road. Rivers : S. the Danube, flowing into the Black 
Sea ; N". the Rhine, with its branches Neckar, Main, etc., Ems, 
Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean ; Oder, Vistula flowing 
into the Baltic. 

The Roman provinces Raztia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, occu- 
pied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania 
superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the 
Upper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a 
province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania 
magna. 

II. Scandinavia, the great peninsula jutting W. and S. from the 
north of Europe. It falls into two divisions : 1. A rugged, moun- 
tainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 
2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers 
flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden). The 
southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans under the 
name Scandia, and was thought to be an island. 

III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. 

Ethnology : I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of 
the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded 
that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken 
the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the 
plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the 
Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it 
was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading Ger- 
mans. Whether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not 
clear ; certain it is that from a very early time a radical difference 
has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby 
they are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, 
and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast. 

The Romans divided the Germans (Germani) 1 either into two sec- 
tions, the Suevi and the non-Suevi (Caesar), or into three branches 
which were named after the sons of " Mannus, the son of the earth-born 
god Tuisco," Istaivones, Ingcevones, Herminones. The former division 

1 The origin of this name is douhtful. See the disputed passage in Tacitus. 
Germania, 2. 



164 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. 

is thought to correspond to tha£ of High (Suevi) and Low Germans ; 
the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later 
formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes 
may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Istsevones, Ubii, Usipii, Tencterii, 
Sugambri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later 
the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks ; Ingsevones, Batavians, Fri- 
sians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimbrl, along the coast from the Rhine to the 
right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hessen, Cherusci on 
the Upper Weser, Hermunduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the 
Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marc- 
omanni in Bohemia (see below), Quadi on the Danube, Semnones, the 
centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization 
of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langobardi, Rugii in the 
northeast toward the Vistula, Burgundiones on the Oder, Guttones 
(later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (?). 

In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth 
century A. d., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, 
and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E. 

II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (Sitones), from 
the N"., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : 
Gautce (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden ; Northmen in Norway. 

III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. 

Religion : The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic 
nature worship. I. Germans : Beyond the unsatisfactory passages 
in Caesar (Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus (Germania 9, 10, etc.), all 
our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the 
introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived 
by inference from later sources, or from the younger but much fuller 
mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods (Ases) of the 
Germans were: Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; 
Donar (Thor), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agri- 
culture ; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a son of Woden, god of war ; Fro 
(Freyr), god of love ; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice ; Nerthus 
or Hertha (Frau Bertha), the earth ; Frauwa (Freyd), sister of 
Fro ; Friga (Frid), wife of Woden ; Helia (Hel) goddess of the 
lower regions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Nornes or fates, 
the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower 
mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, 
cobolds, elves, nixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the 
many popular fancies which the modern study of folk lore has revealed. 

The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, 
though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high 
honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, 
and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to 
Ihe gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often 
devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Cer- 
tain days were set apart for the worship of certain deities, whose 
names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. 
Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor's- 
dag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of 



b. c.-A. d. Teutons. 165 

these recurring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service 
of Christianity. Such was the decoration of trees with flower- 
wreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites, 1 and such the 
colored eggs in a " hare's nest," now an Easter custom, but originally 
an offering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, 
neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. 

II. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of 
the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in 
Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by 
hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing ia 
the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars hold, 
in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- 
mentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson 
(1178-1241). 

In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos {Ginungagap) 
he created two worlds, Nijiheim, the ice-world, in the north, and 
Muspelheim, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, 
in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced 
the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- 
giants (Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Aud- 
humbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom 
a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three 
slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, 
save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of 
the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and 
the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. After- 
wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. 

The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the 
highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode 
of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where 
dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, As gar d, with its lofty 
halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below 
Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- 
rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent 
which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. 
Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one 
purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on which account they were 
perpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- 
low the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, 
Nijiheim, with the fountain Hvergelmer. Bif roust, the bridge between 
Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-bridge between Helheim, Jotun- 
heim and the worlds above. 

These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and 
united by a mighty ash-tree, Yggdrasil, with three roots reaching to 
Godheim, Jotunheim, and Nijiheim. 

The great gods were Odin and his sons : Thor, Vali, Haimdall, 
Vidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hbdur, besides Aller, Forsete, and Njord, 

1 In Germany the tree is simply decorrfted, the presents to be exchanged are 
piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The ex- 
shange of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a sur- 
Tival of a practice observed by the Romans during the Saturnalia (p. 85). 



166 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. 

Freyr, sea gods, and Loke. Of the goddesses the chief were Frigga, 
wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. 
Above all the gods were the Nornes, or fates. Below the gods were 
elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous 
were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- 
lowed a golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time 
evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed through 
the contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- 
toe, Frigga having bound all other created things not to hurt Baldur. 
Loke's children were the Fenris-wolf, chained until the coming of 
Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Binding of Loke. Finally 
comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. 
Battle of the Asa-gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the 
Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad 
alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole 
world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor 
survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. 

According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who 
died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to 
Valhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until 
Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were 
punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand. 1 

Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed 
the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they 
arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of 
civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- 
like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the 
Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled 
for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from 
the other by a broad strip of mark-land. 2 Orders : 1. Nobles, who 
derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political 
privileges because of their nobility. 2. Freemen, that is, land-owners, 
men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their 
bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. 
Freedmen (liti, lassen), or half -freemen, renters bound to military 
service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular 
assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part 
serfs bound to the soil {glebce adscripti), in part actual slaves. The 
latter two classes formed the majority of the population. 

Custom of comradeship (gasindi leudes), out of which the feudal 
system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and 
the division of land among the faithful (fdeles}, and under the in- 
fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- 
sen, vassals, or men ; fief (feudum or benefcium), held on tenure of 
service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 

1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, the extent to which thej r have 
been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- 
i]uiry, but nothing can as yet be said to be definitely determined. See JBugge, 
Entstehung der Nordischen Gotter. 

2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical 
questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re- 
ferred te Waitz, Verfassungsgeschichte, where references will be found. 



b. c.-A. d. Teutons. 167 

History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons in Europe is 
wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts 
of the Baltic about 350 b. c, met with German tribes. From that 
time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Roman 
annals for 225 B. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the 
close of the second century b. a, when the tribes of the Cirribri and 
Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven 
from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in 
Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquae Sextiae and Vercellse 
(102, 101, b. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, 
but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Germans 
until Caesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian 
prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 b. c). Sub- 
jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Caesar's two 
expeditions across the Rhine (58, 55, p. 139). 

Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. 
Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and 
Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the 
fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- 
dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to the Werra 
and Elbe (9). Legend of the " white woman." Death of Drusus. 
His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and 
the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses 
and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor, Varus, alienated the 
Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminius, one of the nobles of the 
Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' 
battle in the Teutoburg Forest 1 (9 a. d. ?). Augustus gave up the 
hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. 
Expeditions of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 
15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintain- 
ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the 
land south of the Main and the Danube. Line of fortifications from 
Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- 
graben, Teufelsmauer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on 
land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence 
agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rcetorum (Chur) in 
Rsetia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in 
Pannonia ; Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- 
gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- 
many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman 
army (so Arminius). Traffic in amber. 

Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily 
informed. In the first century B. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the 
Marcomanni, had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (wh<> 
took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by 
the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbo/J 
(Maroboduus), grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- 
tion of Tiberius against Marbod frustrated by the Pannonian revolt 
(8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by 4 the Romans. 
Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was liimself miuv 
1 The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 



168 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. 

dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusd, 
Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine 
strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of 
Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). 

In process of time a change came over the political organization of 
the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we 
find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the 
same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and 
urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- 
tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and 
political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- 
tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- 
man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome- 
So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- 
pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. 

II. Scandinavia: Northern annalists present an historical Odin, 
probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these 
tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- 
torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the 
leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the 
Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was 
driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas 
westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and 
Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjold, 
Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in 
Sweden. 

The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained belongs to the 
next period, and will be found on page 207. 

III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of 
England see p. 176. 

§ 5. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. 

These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the 
European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the 
Teutons. 

The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the 
name Venedce (hence Wends) as inhabiting the region beyond the 
Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic 
Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom 
they differed in language and descent. 

In the fifth century A. d. the Slavs occupied the country between 
the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. 
They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the 
Volga, <and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and 
the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- 
selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent 
occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their 
settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 a. d. temporary formation 
of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which 
endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an 
end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, 
Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. 



A. d. Slavs and Lithuanians. 169 

Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing 
to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this 
wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among 
the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, 
occur the names Svatovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with 
a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in 
Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Riigen), 
Jarovit, all gods of war ; Zcerneboh, " the black god," an evil deity. 
The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds 
(St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarylo, god of generation ; 
Stribog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and passion. The 
gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by 
human sacrifices. 

The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- 
itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- 
ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- 
mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes 
formed a people. 

The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth 
century. In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the 
ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as JEstui. In the 
narrower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between 
the Memel and the Finnish Esthonians. 



II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 



FIRST PERIOD. 

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OFTHE NORTHERN 
TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN 1 (375-843). 

§ 1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. 
Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century a. d. 

Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower 
Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia {eastern 
Hungary, Roumania) ; Vandals in Pannonia {southwestern Hungary) ; 
Suevi in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar 
and the Rhine, with Worms as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala- 
manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps, 
partly along the Roman boundary wall {agri decumates) ; Ripuarian 
Franks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia A grip- 
pina) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, " dis- 
trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) 2 Saxons from 
the Elbe almost to the Rhine ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- 
gobards on the lower Elbe. 

The peoples which appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples 
were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a 
leader or king chosen for his military prowess {Heerkonig). 

375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonic 
tribes. 

Period of migrations and invasions. 

The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. 

The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon 

the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermafiric, of the family 

of the Amali), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. 

That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen 

took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Christians, 3 and those who 

1 Assmann, Geschichte des Mittelalters. 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 

2 According to other scholars the name was a patron}'mic. 

9 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the council of Nicaea (325). 
Wulfila (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Bible; 
cf. Dahn, Die Koniye der Germanen, VI. 41. 



A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 171 

were just on the point of accepting Christianity (in the form 
of Arianism), were allotted habitations in Mcesia by the em- 
peror Valens. Disputes with the Roman officials at the pas- 
sage of the Danube (Fridigern, leader of the West Goths) led 
to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as they went. 

378. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His 
successor, Theodosius, made peace with the West Goths, who, 
for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the 
frontiers of the Koman Empire as fcederati. 
Alaric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the 
Balthi (i. e. "bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid 
waste Macedonia, Illyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- 
ponnesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militice of the Western Empire 
(p. 161), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with 
an army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them 
to escape. Alaric went to Illyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- 
tium to recognize him as dux in Illyricum orientale. 

401. Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at Aquileia 
he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Rsetia to meet 
him. 

402. Drawn battle at Pollentia. Alaric made another attempt to 
advance southward, but was compelled to return to Illyria by 
disease, hunger, and desertion. 

404-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but wer« 
defeated by Stilicho at Fcesulce, and annihilated by continued 
fighting and by hunger. 

406-409. Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions 
along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in 
contests with the Franks, and finally (409) invaded Spain. 

Foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. 

The Salian Franks gradually occupied northern Gaul. The 
Burgundians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms). 
408. Stilicho murdered by the command of the emperor Honorius 
(p. 161). 
Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired 
on receipt of a ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant 
Alaric's request that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- 
manent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon 
Rome, and forced the senate to appoint Attains, prefect of the city, 
emperor. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, 
quarrelled with Attalus, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third 
time upon Rome. 

410. Capture and sack of Rome by Alaric. Alaric went 
to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and 
thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and 
was buried beneath the Busento. 

410-415. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to 
Gaul, though whether in fulfilment of a treaty with Honorius 



172 Mediceval History. A. d. 

to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, or 
of his own accord, is uncertain. He carried with him the sister of 
Honorius, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and mar- 
ried her in Narbonne (414). The proposed treaty with the imperial 
court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by the im- 
perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, and 
was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 

415-419. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded a 
treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandals, 
Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul under 
Roman supremacy. Walja was the founder of the 

415-507. West Gothic (Visigothic) kingdom of To- 
losa, with its capital at Tolosa (Toulouse), which soon became 
independent. 1 

429. King Gens eric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portion 
of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes, 2 of the 
Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at court 
by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace with 
Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valen- 
tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genseric, who, 
after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Car- 
thage (439). 

429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital, 
Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius |430). 

440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plundered 
the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 

443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on the 
Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman 
province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and 
also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian 
territory. 

449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the 
coasts of the German Ocean, and having settlements on the 
coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum 3 ), were called in by the Brit- 
ons, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain, 
to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north- 
ern mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Angles 
crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands were 
led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of time 
8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, 
Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to form 
Norihumbria (north of the Humber); hence the number of 
states was then 7 (heptarchy). 
The Britons for the most part migrated to Wales, and to Ar* 

morica in Gaul, which was hence called Brelagne (Brittany). 
For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 

1 Cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, Pt. V. 

2 This is denied by the more recent authorities. 
8 See, however, p. 38. 



A. d. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 173 

451. Attila (Etzel, " Scourge of God "), king of the Huns (in his 

train armed bands of Germanic peoples, whom he had sub- 
jected, East Goths, Gepidce, etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. 
He besieged Orleans in vain. 
Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chdlons-sur-Marne: the 
battle-field itself was at Troyes). Attila defeated by Aetius, 
the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which 
alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the West 
Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Franks, Burgundians, 
etc.). Theodoric I., king of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 

452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded 

by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishop Leo (?). 
After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the 
Huns fell asunder. 

Not only the German tribes which had been subjugated by the 
Huns became free (the Gepidcz were the first to shake off the yoke) ; 
the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following 
centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- 
ern parts of Germany. 
455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian III., by Maximus, 

plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in 

by Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian. 
The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far 

as Cyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 

476. Odovakar (Odoacer), leader of Herulian and other 
German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in 
Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the 
West (p. 162). 

There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but 
the line of Emperors in the West came to an end in consequence 
of domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had 
united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, 
however, had usually nominally recognized the supremacy of the 
Jmperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 

486. Battle of Soissons. The Merowingian Chlodwig 
(Chlodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic 
Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the 
successor of Aetius. 

. Kingdom of the Pranks in northern Gaul. Chlodwig 
by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of all 
the Pranks. 

496. Victory of Chlodwig over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum 
or Zulpich). 1 Conversion of Chlodwig and the Franks to 
Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig baptized by Remigius, 

1 Assmann, I. 53. 



174 Mediceval History. A. D. 

bishop of Rheims (Mitis depone colla Sigamber, adora quod 
incendisti, incende quod adorasti). 

493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- 
feated Odovakar, with whom he had been at war since 
489, founded the 

493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in 
Italy. 

Residence Ravenna, at times Verona, hence in the hero romances : 
Dietrich von Bern. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethius (de con 
solatione philosophice), and Symmachus, executed (525). 
500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked the Burgundians, to 
revenge himself on Gundobad, the uncle of his wife Chlotilde, 
for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dijon, and 
made them tributary to the Franks. 
507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille, or Voulon, 1 
on the Clain, a branch of the Vienne, in the vicinity of 
Poitiers. 

The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks 
at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- 
tween the Rhone and Pyrenees). 

Theodoric the Great united a part of southern Gaul to the king- 
dom of the East Goths, and undertook the government of that part 
which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions 
of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- 
laric, a minor (son of Alaric II.), and retained it till his death (526), 
which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. 

507 (526)-7H. West Gothic (Visigothic) Kingdom in 
Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 

526. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuniha be- 
came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Athalaric. 
The latter died young (534), and his mother associated with 
herself as co-regent her cousin Theodahad (Theodat), who 
murdered her, thereby causing 

535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. 

533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the 
East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. 

Decay of the kingdom of the Vandals after the death of 
Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- 
sarius captured. 

Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the 
540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. 

Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered 
him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against 
the Persians. 

During his absence the East Goths, under their new king 
Totila, reconquered the greater part of Italy. 

1 Dahn, Die Konige d. Germ. V. 109. 



A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 175 

544-549. Belisarius, sent again to Italy, fought with varying suc- 
cess, but with increasing fame, against Totila. He recaptured 
Rome. After Belisarius had been again recalled, Rome was a 
second time taken by Totila. 

552. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Tagince 

or Busta Gallorum. Totila fell on the field. 

553. The last king of the East Goths, Teja, fell in the battle of 

Mons lactarius (near Vesuvius): 
555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- 
archate. 

568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in 
Italy. Alboin. 

Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- 
stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the 
daughter of the king of the Gepidse. At the head of his Lango- 
bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far 
south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, 
Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- 
archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples, 
and Calabria. Rome (ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- 
dent under its bishops. (Patrimonium Petri.) 

After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamund, because, as the 
story goes, he attempted, during a carouse, to force her to drink 
from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to 
lower Italy, where independent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- 
ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his 
son Authari was recognized as king. Through the influence of his 
wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- 
bards to Christianity was begun. 

Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : 
Hothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards 
appeared (644) ; Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently 
usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; 
Liu tp rand (717-744), who made further additions to the code of 
the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-756), whose attempt to conquer 
Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 
585. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West 
Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, 
were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 
590-604. Gregory I. (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of 
the Papacy (Papa, Ildinras, i. e. father, formerly the title of 
every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- 
sor of St. Peter). 



176 Mediaeval History. . a. d. 



§ 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. 

From the first invasions to the supremacy of Ecgberht 
449 (?)-828. 

Roman Britain. 

Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and 
the Severn (Cantii, Regni, Belgse, Atrebates, Durotriges, Dumnonii). 
2. Britannia secunda,Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordovices). 3. Flavia 
Ccesariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, 
Caytieuchlani, Iceni, Dobuni, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- 
riensis, between the Humber and the Tyne (Parisii, Brigantes). 5. 
Valentia, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovse, 
Novantse). 

Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or Lollius Urbi- 
cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) 
between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New- 
castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). 
In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Reculver, Bichborough, Lym- 
ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) 

Towns : Camulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin? 
dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Londinium 
(London). 

Roads : Wailing Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from 
Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild 
Street from Caistor to Dorchester. 1 

The Teutonic Invaders. 

After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- 
ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish) on the 
W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for 
several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons 
were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans 
from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- 
tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- 
tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. That 
they came at first to aid the Britons against their other foes is not 
impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of 
Vortigern and Rowena. 

The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, 
inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- 
gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- 
merous people, living south of Schleswig along the Elbe and westward 
on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the 
Angles seem to have gone en masse. 

Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the 

1 Green. The more usual but incorrect routes assigned these roads are: 
Watling, Kent to Cardigan Bay; Hermin, St. Davids to Southampton; Foss, 
Cornwall to Lincoln; Ikenild, St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, Roman 
Britain, p. 116. 



A. d. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 177 

continental Germans (p. 164). Each man was priest in his household, 
and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions 
under their control. 

Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the 
soil, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled 
in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave 
their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all 
were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around 
the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- 
cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- 
prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate 
one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: 
athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service 
to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether 
either of the invading tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; 
their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose 
power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- 
cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took 
the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the 
latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- 
lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of 
hundreds which made up the tribe had its king and its great council 
(ivitan), which elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- 
ily, and was consulted by him. The witan was in theory composed of 
all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the 
more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps 
every man of note, had a personal following of companions (thegns), 
who had devoted themselves to his service and were supported by 
him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- 
ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of 
the king, and thus the number and power of the king's military house- 
hold constantly increased. 

Jutes (Kent). ' 

449 (?).* Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet 
(then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between 
the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 36). East and West 
Kent. 

South Saxons (Sussex). 

477. Mile, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing, and 
Cissa, landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of 
the Andredsweald. 

491. Storm of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 

1 The date is variously given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. 
I have followed throughout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism 
which would limit our knowledge of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain to 
what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th 
centuries seems to me to be based on hypercriticism. 
12 



27S Medieval History. A. D. 



West Saxons (Wessex). 

A more Important settlement was that begun by the Saxons", 

under the ealdormen 
495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- 

weald. The formation of the country directed their line of 

extension W. and N., thus bringing them into contact with the 

great body of western Cymry. 
517. Cerdic and Cynric assumed the royal title. 

At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the 
Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before 
it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- 
ric traditions of Arthur, 1 king of the Silures, to whom this repulse 
of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. 

Cynric (534-556) conquered modern Berkshire. Ceawlin (556- 
591 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him 
the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being JElle). The meaning 
of this title is not clear. By the 

577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn 
and separated the Cymry of Cornwall (Devraint) from those 
of West Wales. 

East Saxons (Essex). 

During the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of 
the Thames. Sack of Camulodunwn. Establishment of a small 
kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to 
the Wash (Ercenwin, 527 ?). 

Middle Saxons (Middlesex). 

A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. 

East Angles (East Anglia). 

While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were 
occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about 
the Wash (Uffa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. 

North Angles (Northumbria). 

Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements of Angles north of 
the Humber. Conquest of central Yorkshire. 

Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith 
of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 

547. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry 
called him, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk. 2 
Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region 
which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- 
querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 

1 The northern Cymry seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later 
fugitives to Bretagne carried the memory of Arthur with them; there his 
name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven 
into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 

2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as" well as in the south has been 
attributed to Arthur. 



A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 179 



Middle Angles (Mercia). 

Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the 
present counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and 
Northampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded 
(Lindesfaras, Gainas, Magescetas, Hwiccas) were at a later time 
united in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). 

Thus Britain south of the Firth at the close of the third quarter of 
the sixth century was divided between Cymry and Teutons by a line 
drawn nearly N. and S. midway of the breadth of the land. Teuton 
and Celt, pagan and Christian, faced one another throughout the 
length of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough. 
Not that the Cymry were exterminated ; many remained within the 
Saxon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- 
frequent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-day. Though 
the subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in 
all else they were soon assimilated with the conquerors. Temporary 
halt in the work of conquest. 

Wars of the invaders among themselves. 
588. Formation of the kingdom of Northumbria by the enforced union 

of Bernicia and Deira under .asthenic, king of Bernicia. 
590-616. Supremacy of .ffithelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called 

the third Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. 

His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter 

of Charibert, king of the Franks. 
597. Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. 

Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and 
Augustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of 
the East Saxons. Laws of iEthelbert. An attempt to convert the 
East Angles led to the revolt and 
About 610-617. Supremacy of Reedwald, of East Anglia, over 

Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- 
walda. In the N. JEthelfriih of Northumbria defeated the Cymry of 
Strathclyde in the great 
607. Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting 

off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from 
Cornwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178). iEthelfrith defeated 
and slain in the battle of the Idle by Reedwald, who had taken up the 
claims of Eadwine, son of JElla, formerly king of Deira. 
617-633. Supremacy of Eadwine of Northumbria, called the 

fifth Bretwalda. His overlordship was more comprehensive 
than that of any of his predecessors, since, after the conquest cf 
Wessex (526), it included all Teutonic Britain except Kent. Conver- 
sion of Northumbria (627). Revolt of the Mercians under 
Fenda (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- 
feated Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- 
wine. 
633-655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, 

Essex, and East Anglia. 



180 Mediceval History. A. d. 

635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bernicia, in the battle of 

the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 
635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwards 

called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent. 
Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had relapsed into 
paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of Wes- 
sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Penda, 
and slam in the 
642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended over 

Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 
655. Battle of the Winwaed. Penda defeated by Oswiu, brother of 

Oswald, and his successor in Bernicia, and slain. 
655-659. Supremacy of Oswiu of Northumbria, called the sev- 
enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wessex, 

Kent, and Sussex. 
659. Eevolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings of 

Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. 
Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council c6n-> 
vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsus, 
archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of the 
English church. 

688-726. Ine, king of Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wars 

with the Cymry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldest 

West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). 
Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith), 
apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert, 
of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth. Ceed- 
mon. Bseda (672-735) ; Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 
733-752. Supremacy of uEthelbald of Mercia over all England 

S. of the Humber. 
752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of ^thelbald of 

Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuthred. 
Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between 
the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia. 

756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 

755-794. Offa, king of Mercia. 

Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the 

Welsh kingdom of Powys, W. of the Severn. Offtfs Dyke from the 

mouth of the Wye to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and 

Charles the Great. Laws of Offa. 

789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britain on the coast of 
Devonshire. 

802-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- 
ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent in the kingdom 
of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of 
Beornwulfoi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandune (825). Sub- 
mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex. 
Ecgberht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Submis- 
sion of Wales (828). 



A. d. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians. 181 

All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception 
of Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht. 
834. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated by the 

Danes. 
836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh 
and Danes. Death of Ecgberht (837). {Seep. 203.) 

§ 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- 
GIANS. {Seep. 173.) 
511. After the death of Chlodwig the first division of the kingdom 
of the Franks. According to this division, which was not 
strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I. 
(Thierry, 511-533). Chlodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), CUl- 
debert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511-561) ruled the 
kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz, Orleans, Paris 
and Soissons. 
530-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest 
of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- 
jugated the Burgundians. 
The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to 
the Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part 
(to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- 
nia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- 
trict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale con- 
tinued to be called Thuringia. 

Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and 
Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. 
558-561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlo- 
tar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death 
561. A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of 
Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-567), Sigi- 
bert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later 
(567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, 
and a population chiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital 
at Soissons ; Burgundy, with Orleans as capital ; in both of 
which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- 
Celtic or Romance. 1 
Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde 
(Brunichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, long of the 
Visigoths, and Fredegunde {Fredegundis) of Neustria (f 597), slave, 
and afterwards wife x of Chilperic I. 

613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under 
Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. 
Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a 
wild horse. 

Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of 

1 Charibert received the territory around Paris, but after his early death this 
was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence- 
forth of importance. [Trans.] 



182 MedicBval History. A. d. 

the palace), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, 
afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of the 
Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood, 1 ac- 
quired an hereditary claim to the office of major domus, in Austrasia 
first, and afterwards in Neustria. 

622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, 
however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into 
which it had meanwhile separated : 

1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde 
from 2. Neustria (Romance, northern France to the Loire, not reck- 
oning Bretagne which was independent) and Burgundy. The duchies 
of Aquitania and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the 
Loire and the Pyrenees, were almost independent. (Seep. 183.) 

§ 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 
622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 

16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), born at Mecca, 
571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of the 
wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the 
Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of 
the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God conse- 
quent on belief). One God (Allah) and Mohammed his prophet. 
Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (629) ; 
preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohammed died 632. 
Caliphs (i. e. successors) : 

632-634. Abu-bekr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the 
Koran (Quran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral 
tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, 
who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, and 
regarded Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only right- 
ful successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians. 

634-644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East. 
He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (" Prince of the 
faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs. 
Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phcenicia. De- 
struction of the empire of the Sassanidce (the New Persians) 
by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt by 
Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria. 

644-656. Othmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Cap- 
ture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection. 

656-661. Ali, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not uni- 
versally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph in 
Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, 
the Sooneite 

661-750. Ommiads obtained the caliphate. 

661-680. Muawwiyah I., great-grandson of Omeyyah. He trans- 
ferred the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus. 

i Bonnell, Die Anfangc des Karolingischen Hanses, 1866. 



A. d. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 183 

The caliphate was made hereditary. 
About 700 the governor Musa completed the conquest of Byzantine 
Africa as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The Berbers, who ac- 
cepted Islam, together with the inhabitants of Punic, Greek, 
and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians 
under the name of Moors. Tarik, 1 one of Musa's generals, 
crossed from northern Africa to Spain, and in the 

711. Battle of Xeres de la Frontera (plains of the Guadal- 
quivir) destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. 

From this time on there coexisted in Spain: 1. the province of the 
caliphate, which became, at a later date (756), the separate caliphate 
of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by Peiagius, 
afterwards the kingdom of Leon. 

The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques 
and invaded Gaul Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 

732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers, where they were defeated 
by Charles Martel. 

Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest 
extent, embracing southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and 
the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, the entire northern 
coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern 
Trance the county of Narbona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the 
Balearic Isles. 

In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars with the followers 
of Ali. Abul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- 
threw the last Ommiad caliph, Merwan II. 

750-1258. Rule of the Abbasides. Eesidence at Bagdad. 

Treacherous murder of all the Ommiad princes (90). 

One only, 
Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 
756. caliphate of Cordova. {Seep. 209.) 

§5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. 
(Seep. 182.) 
687. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) 
of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from 
St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Neustria) sole 
major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called 
himself in future dux et princeps Francorum. 
Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, 
sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major 
domus Pipin of Heristal. 

732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers. Victory of 

1 From him comes the name Gibel or Jebel-aUTarih ( Gibraltar), i. e. moun- 
tain of Tarik, near which he landed. It would appear that the story of Tarik's 
having been summoned by the Visigothic count Julian, is mythical. Cf . Dahn, 
Kim. d. Germ. V. 227. 



184 Mediceval History. A. D. 

Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the 
Arabs. 

751. 1 With Pipin the Short (741-768), Charles Martel's 
son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks. 

The last king of the Merowingian line (les rois faineants), Childe- 
ric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zacharias and placed 
in a . monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of 
Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., 
who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and his sons 
Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin 
styled himself " king by the grace of God." 

In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistud, king of the 
Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the 
Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis (Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fa.no, 
Pesaro, Rimini), the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, 
and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius 
of Rome, that city not being included in the gift to the Pope. 2 

Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named 
Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 
680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, 
in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop 
since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded 
bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal 
chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head 
of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of 
Mainz ; in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians. 

768-814. Charles the Great (Charlemagne), 

since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Kall- 
mann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Lango- 
bards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards 
rejected. 

773-774. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards. 
The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desi- 
derius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came 
to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture 
of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited 
Rome and renewed his alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in 
a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom 
of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of 
southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 

772-804. War with the Saxons. 

The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. West- 
phalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Ems j 

1 See the proof in G. Kicbter, Annalen d. deutschen Geschichte im Mittelal* 
ter, I. p. 216. 

2 See, however, Oelsner, Jahrb. d. frank. Reichs unter Konig Pippin. Chap. 
IX. p. 129 foil. 



A. d. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 185 

Engern, on both sides of the Weser as far as the Leine ; Eastphalia, 
as far as the Elbe; Northalbingia, N. of the lower Elbe to the 
Eider. 

The Saxon war was resolved upon in the assembly (May-field) at 
Worms (772). 

772. Capture of the Eresburg, destruction of the Irminsul. 775. 
Capture of Sigiburg. Subjugation of the Saxons W. of the Elbe. 
The Saxons destroyed the Eresburg-, but were subjugated anew, 
776-777. First May-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderborn. 
New insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's 
defeat in the Pyrenees, 778 ; subdued by the army of the east Franks 
and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Bocholt on the Aa. 
780, Submission of the Saxons ; acceptance of Christianity. 

After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or Witte- 
kiud, and a defeat of the Frankish army, Charles took the field in 
person with success. 782, Slaughter of 4500 Saxons on the Aller. 
783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles 
victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hase. 785, After a two years' 
resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian. 

778. Wars of Charles in Spain. 

Conquest of Saragossa. Return by Roncevaux, and defeat of 
the Frankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave 
of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose 
deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish 
mark * was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Lud- 
wig, son of Charles (801). 

788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvarise (Bavarians), after 
• the second revolt of duke Tassilo. 

Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans 
of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles de- 
feated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789). 

791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Ba- 
varia) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. 796. 
Storm of the King's Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) 
between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between 
the Ems and the Raab was annexed to the Frankish empire 
and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. 
(Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.) 

800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West. 
Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor 
in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought 
Charles' camp at Paderborn. Restored by Charles to Rome, 
he crowned him emperor on Christmas-day, 800. 

793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led 
to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken ref- 
uge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Frankish mark; 
his ships harassed the coasts of the German Ocean. 

1 Mark : a strip of land on the border of a country, where the military 
power was especially well kept up, under a Markgraf (border-count), who was 
responsible for the safety of the border. — Tra#s. 



186 MedicBval History, A. D. 

808. The Danes, defeated by Charles, the eldest son of the emperor, 

retired beyond the Eider. 
810. The emperor was obliged to take the field against Gottfried in 

person. The Danish king was murdered by his own servants. 
Peace with his successors. Saxony north of the Elbe remained a part 
of the Frankish kingdom. Boundaries of the kingdom : Ebro, Radb, 
Eider, Garigliano, The Wends were again subjugated. 

Charles resided in Aachen in Austrasia (Aix-la-Chapelle) prin- 
cipally on account of its warm springs, or in the County Palatine on 
the Rhine, at Ingelheim, or in Nymwegen. Capitularii, imperial re- 
scripts. Assemblies composed of all men of rank, both churchmen 
and laymen ("in quo placito generalitas universorum maiorum, tarn 
clericorum quam laicorum conveniebat "). Levy of troops (Heer- 
ban). Governors of counties (Gaugrafen), counts of the border dis- 
tricts (comites marchice, Markgrafen), imperial messengers (missi regis, 
Sendgrafen), who made periodical circuits in different parts of the 
empire, heard complaints and reported the same with other observa- 
tions and suggestions to the emperor. The Anglo-Saxon scholar 
Alcuin, the Langobard Paul, son of Warnefrid (Paulus Diaconus), 
called to the imperial court, where intellectual pursuits were favored 
and shared by the emperor. Schools for the education of the clergy, at 
Tours and Paris. Einhard (Eginhard), the favorite secretary of 
Charles (author of the Vita Caroli Imperatoris). Charles the Great 
became the centre of the most important series of romances of the 
Middle Age. 
786-809. In the East Charles found a friend and admirer in Har- 

otm-al-Rashid, Caliph of Bagdad. His reign and that of 

his son Mamun cover the most fruitful period of science, art, 

and manufactures among the Arabs. 

The elder sons of Charles the Great, Charles and Pipin, dying 

before their father, he was succeeded by his youngest son, 

814-840. Ludwig the Pious. (Louis le Debonnaire). 

Ludwig's nephew, Bernhard, Pipin's son, according to Charles' 
decree, king of Italy under the supremacy of his uncle, re- 
belled against the latter, was defeated, captured, and killed. 
Ludwig had 4 sons : Lothar, Pipin, Ludwig, Charles the Bald (the 
latter by Judith, his second wife, of the noble Alamannian family of 
the Welfs). In 829 Ludwig substituted a new division of the empire, 
whereby his youngest son, Karl, received Alamannia and the royal 
title for the division made in 817, under which Lothar held the larger 
part of the empire and the imperial crown, Pipin had Aquitania, and 
Ludwig, Bavaria. The three elder sons at once revolted, and civil war 
broke out. On the Field of Lies, near Colmar in Alsace, Ludwig, the 
father, was deserted by his troops (833). He was taken prisoner 
(public penance in the church at Soissons), but soon released by his 
repentant son Ludwig, and replaced upon the throne (834). Pipin 
died in 838, and his share of the empire was divided between Lothar 
and Charles, which caused a new rebellion on the part of Ludwig. In 
840 Ludwig the Pious died on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. 
Ludwig and Charles in alliance defeated Lothar at Fontanetum (Fonn 
tenaille or Fontenay ?) in 841. Bi-lingual oath of Strassburg (842). 



A. d. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 187 

843. Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire among 
Aug. the brothers as follows : 

1. Lothar : Centre of the Franldsh lands, i. e. Austrasia, Fries- 
land, the Alamannian lands on the left bank of the Rhine, the 
greater part of Burgundy, Provence, a part of Languedoc; in 
general, a region bounded by the Schelde, Meuse, Saone, Rhone, 
in the west, by the Rhine and Alps in the east, and Frankish 
Italy. 

2. Ludwig the German : The eastern part of the Frankish lands, 
i. e. all those parts of the empire lying on the right bank of the 
Rhine, except Friesland ; the diocese of Mainz, Worms, and 
Speier on the left bank (in general a region lying between the 
Rhine and the Elbe). 

3. Charles the Bald : The western part of the Frankish lands, 
i. e. Neustria, Aquitania, the northern part of Burgundy, Septi- 
mania, the Spanish Mark. 

Lothar retained the imperial dignity which his father had given 
him. His kingdom, which lacked natural boundaries and comprised 
various nationalities, contained within itself the germ of rapid disso- 
lution. 

The Treaty of Yerdun was originally merely a, family contract, made 
without regard to national differences. In Ludwig's kingdom, how- 
ever, the German element was in the majority ; in that of Charles the 
Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in the course of 
the f ollowing centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, 
from the West Frankish the French nationality. The East Franks 
called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated 
clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the language of the people, and gradually 
(since Henry I. ?) those who spoke Deutsche came to be called 
Deutsche. 1 (See pp. 193, 201.) 

§ 6. NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE OF THE SASSANIDiE.2 Aryan. 
226-641. (Seep. 155.) 

226-240. Artaxerxes I. (Artahshatr), 

son, not of Sasan, but of Papak, probably king of Persia 
proper, revolted against Artabanus, the last king of Par- 
thia (p. 30), whom he defeated and slew in the battle of 
Hormuz. 
Contest of Artaxerxes with the Arsacid kings of Bactria and Arme- 
nia. The claim preferred by Artaxerxes to all Asia as far as the 
iEgean involved him in a war with Rome. Defeat of Alexander 
Severus, followed by peace. Subjugation of Armenia. Restoration 
of the religion of Zoroaster. Collection of the text of the Zend Avesta. 
Artaxerxes was succeeded by his son, 

240-271. Sapor I. (Shahpuhri). 

Wars with Rome. I. (241-244.) The Romans were sue* 

1 V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deuischen Kaiserzeit, I. 4th ed. p. 149. 

2 Bawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. 



188 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

cessful under Gordianus, but his successor, Philippus, concluded peace 
with Sapor, leaving Armenia in his hands, but retaining Mesopotamia. 
II. (258-260.) A glorious war for Persia. Nisibis, Edessa, Antioch 
fell into their hands, and the Roman emperor Valerianus was cap- 
tured and remained a prisoner until his death (265 or 266). Defeat 
of Persians by Odenathus of Palmyra (p. 157). Erection of many 
buildings and engineering works in Persia. Mani, or Manes, a 
teacher of a new form of religion compounded of Christianity and 
Zoroasterianism (Manicheism), expelled from Persia. 

Sapor was succeeded by his son, Hormisdas I. (Auhrmazdi), who 
reigned one year and ten days (271-272) and was followed by his 
brother, Varahran I. (272-275). Execution of Mani. Aid sent to 
Zenobia (p. 157). The murder oiAurelianus (275) put an end to his 
expedition against Varahran, who was succeeded in the same year by 
his son Varahran II. (275-292?). His reign is marked chiefly by the 
war with Rome (283), which was closed by the mysterious death of 
Carus (283-284). Revolt of Tiridates of Armenia, aided by Rome 
Varahran III., son of Varahran II., reigned four months, and was 
followed by his brother, 

292-301. Narses, 

who after defeating his brother and rival, Hormisdas, drove 
Tiridates from Armenia (296). War with Rome. Galerius, at first 
unsuccessful in Mesopotamia, finally defeated Narses. Peace (297) : 
1. Persia ceded five provinces beyond the Tigris to Rome. 2. The 
Tigris recognized as the general boundary between Persia and Rome. 1 
3. Cession of a large part of Media to Armenia. 4. Persia surrendered 
to Rome her supremacy over Iberia (Georgia). 

Abdication of Narses and accession of his son, Hormisdas II. 
(301-309), whose reign covers little of importance. At his death the 
nobles set aside his son Hormisdas, and conferred the crown upon his 
unborn child. A boy was born, who received the name 

309-379 (?). Sapor II. 

During his minority the country suffered from invasions of the 
Arabs, but on arriving at his seventeenth year Sapor assumed the 
government, and inflicted a terrible punishment on Arabia. Persecu- 
tion of Christians (about 325). First war with Rome (337-350). 
Defeat of Constantius at Singara (348). Nisibis in Mesopotamia thrice 
besieged by Sapor in vain (338, 340, 350). War of Sapor with Tatar 
tribes in the E. (351-359) and extension of Persian power in this 
direction. Armenia went over to Rome. Second war with Rome 
(359-363). Invasion of Syria. Capture of Amida after a desperate 
resistance. Julianus, emperor of Rome, invaded Persia, and defeated 
the Persians before Ctesiphon (362), but immediately began a retreat, 
in the course of which he died. His successor, Jovian, concluded 
peace with Sapor for thirty years (363) : 1. Restoration of the five 
provinces ceded by Narses. 2. Surrender of Nisibis and Singara to 
Persia. 3. Rome to give up all connection with Armenia. Conquest 
of Armenia by Sapor. Third war with Rome (371-376), carried 
on without energy and concluded by an obscure peace. 

1 Kawlinson, Seventh Monarchy, 128 foil., discusses the conditions. 



£.. d. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 189 

The brilliant reign of Sapor was followed by a time of quiet. 
Artaxerxes II. (379-383.) Sapor III. (383-388.) Division of 
Armenia between Persia and Rome, — Persia receiving the larger 
part. Varahran IV. (388-399) deposed Chosroes, king of Persian 
Armenia, and placed his own brother on the throne (391). Varahran 
was murdered during a mutiny, and succeeded by his son Isdigerd I. 
(Izdikerti) (399-419 [420]), whose peaceful reign is remarkable for 
little, except a persecution of the Christians in Persia and Armenia. 
He was succeeded by his son, 

419 (420)^40. Varahran V., 

who, having put down Chosroes, a pretender to the throne, re- 
newed the persecution of the Christians, and began war with Rome. 
Meeting with no success, he concluded peace (422), and agreed to stop 
the persecution. (Charity of Acacius, bishop of Ajnida, who ransomed 
7000 Persian captives.) Beginning of Persia's wars with the Ephthi- 
alites (Pers. Haithal), a people dwelling beyond the Oxus, and prob- 
ably of " Thibetic or Turkish stock " (not Huns). Surprise, defeat, and 
death of the invading Khan. The Persians crossed the Oxus and 
chastised the Tatars in their own territory. Varahran was succeeded 
by his son, 
440-457. Isdigerd II., 

who at once declared war upon Rome, but as hastily concluded 
peace. Nine years' war with the Epthialites, ending with their defeat 
in their own country. The attempt of Isdigerd to convert Armenia 
to Zoroastrianism brought on a religious war, wherein the Christians 
were defeated (455 or 456). Forcible conversion of Armenia. To- 
ward the close of his reign Isdigerd was defeated by the Ephthialites. 
After his death civil war between his sons Perozes and Hormisdas, 
ending in the victory of i 

459-483 (?). Perozes. 

Great famine in the seventh year of his reign (?). Unsuccess- 
ful war and disgraceful peace with the Ephthialites (464-4:65). Re- 
volt of Armenia under Vahan, which was still unsubdued when Pero- 
zes again attacked the Ephthialites, at whose hands he suffered 
a severe defeat, falling in the battle. He was succeeded by his 
brother (?) 
483(?)-487. Balas (Pers. Valakhesh or Volgases), 

under whom Persia probably paid tribute to Khush-newaz, the 
Ephthialite Khan. Pacification of Armenia. Edict of toleration. 
Destruction of fire-altars. Balas was succeeded by 
487(?)^198. Kobad, (first reign) 

son of Perozes, who had been in hiding among the Ephthi- 
alites. Successful war with the Khazars, a people of uncertain race 
(Turkish or Caucasian?), dwelling between the Volga and the Don. 
Communistic and ascetic doctrines of Mazdak, a high priest of Zoro- 
aster, to which many converts were made, the king being of the 
number. Consequent disturbances in Persia and Armenia resulting 
in the deposition of Kobad and the accession of his brother, 
498-501. Zamasp. 

Kobad, however, soon escaped to the Ephthialites and returned 



190 Medlceval History. A. d. 

at the head of an army, whereupon Zamasp voluntarily resigned the 

crown. 

501-531. Kobad (second reign). 

Withdrawal of support from Masdak. The refusal of the 
Eastern Empire to fulfil its agreement to contribute to the defence of 
the pass of Derbend in the Caucasus, which was the usual route of 
the nomadic tribes in their invasions of Persia or the Eastern Empire, 
caused Kobad to declare war. Sack of Amida (502). An Ephthi- 
.'lite invasion induced peace in 507. Erection of the fortress of 
Dams, twelve miles from Nisibis by Anastasius, emperor of the East. 
Second war with the Eastern Empire (524-531), wherein the Per- 
sians, at first successful, were defeated by Belisarius in the battle of 
Daras (528). Kobad was succeeded by his son, 

531-579. Chosroes I. Anushirwan (" The Just ") per= 
haps the greatest of the Sassanid kings. 
Peace with Rome (533) : 1. Rome paid 11,000 lbs. of gold toward 
the fortification of the Caucasus. 2. Daras retained its fortifica- 
tions, but was not to be the Roman headquarters. 3. Reciprocal sur- 
render of recent conquests. 4. Eternal friendship and alliance, whence 
this peace is known as the " endless peace." It endured for seven 
years, at the end of which time Chosroes, jealous of the great victo- 
ries of Justinian in the West, listened to the prayers of the East 
Goths and declared war. 
540. Capture of Antioch. 

Chosroes extorted ransom from the principal cities of west- 
ern Asia Minor ; returned home. A truce, concluded in 545, was 
broken in 549 by Rome, who sent assistance to the Lazi (inhabitants 
of ancient Colchis) in their war with Persia. 
551. Capture of Petra by the Romans and Lazi. 
563. Definite peace between Persia and Rome. 

1. Lazica ceded to Rome. 2. Rome to make a yearly pay- 
ment to Persia. 3. Exercise of their faith secured to the Christians 
in Persia. 4. Commercial intercourse between the empires restricted 
to certain roads and marts. 5. Free diplomatic intercourse. 6. 
Daras to retain its fortifications. 7. Disputes to be settled by arbi- 
tration. 8. Allies of either party included in the peace. 9. Persia 
undertook the maintenance of the Caspian Gates alone. 10. The 
peace was concluded for fifty years. 

Successful wars with the Ephthialites and Khazars. 
562. Expedition of Chosroes to Arabia, against the Christian king- 
dom founded there by Abyssinians early in the sixth century. 
Chosroes expelled the Abyssinians and left the country under the 
control of Sa'if, leader of the native Homerites ; after his murder 
Arabia was made a Persian province. 

The expedition to India ascribed to Chosroes is doubtful. Dezabul, 
Khan of the Turks, who had recently subjugated the Ephthialites 
and entered into alliance with the Eastern Empire, invaded Persia, 
but met with no success. 

572. Justin, Emperor of the East, declared war on Persia. Chos- 
roes ravaged Syria. Fall of Daras (573). 



A., d. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 191 

ChosroSs died, 579, in Mesopotamia. 

Improved administration in Persia under Chosroes. Empire di» 
vided into four governments : East, Khorassan, Seistan, Kirman ; 
North, Armenia, Azerbizan, Ghilan, Koum, Isfahan; South, Fars, 
Ahwaz ; "West, Irak, or Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia. Frequent 
progresses of the king. Substitution of a fixed land tax for the for- 
mer variable tax on produce. Tax collectors placed under the super- 
vision of the priests. Reform in the army. Improved irrigation. 
Protection of foreigners. Encouragement of learning. Laws of 
Artaxerxes revised. Collection of the Shah-na-meh, or Book of the 
Kings, the basis of Firdusi's epic. Introduction of the Fables of 
Pilpay, and of the game of chess from India. Toleration extended to 
Christians. Chosroes was succeeded by his son, 
579-589. Hormisdas IV. (Hormazd). 

At first a wise ruler, afterwards the worst of Persian kings. 
579. Invasion of Persia by the Eastern Emperor Maurice. 
581. Defeat of the Persians at Constantia. The war continued with 

alternate defeat and victory until in 
589. Persia was invaded by Arabs, Khazars, and above all by the 

great Khan of the Turks. He was defeated by the Persian 
general Bahram and fell in the battle. In the same year Hormisdas 
provoked a war with Rome by invading Lazica. Bahram was de- 
feated on the Araxes. An insult offered him by the king caused his 
revolt and the deposition and murder of Hormisdas, who was suc- 
ceeded by his son, 

589-628. Chosroes II., Eberwiz, 

who was at once involved in war with Bahram, who drove him 
from the kingdom and assumed the crown. The reign of Bahram 
(Varahran VI.) was short (590-591). Chosroes had taken refuge 
at Constantinople, and a Roman force restored him to his throne. 
Bahram, defeated, fled to the Turks. 

The second reign of Chosroes II. was marked by a wonderful in- 
crease of Persia's power, and by its sudden fall. 
603-610. War with Phocas, murderer of Maurice. Capture of 

Daras. Syria, Armenia, Galatia, Phrygia, ravaged. Sack of 
Antioch. The accession of Heraclius to the throne of the Eastern 
Empire did not end the war. 
612. Invasion of Cappadocia. 

614. Capture of Damascus. 

615. Sack of Jerusalem. 

616. Capture of Pelusium and Alexandria by the Persian general 

Shahr-Barz. Submission of Egypt. 

617. Fall of Chalcedon. The Persians encamped within a mile of 

Constantinople. 
620. Capture of Ancyra and of Rhodes. Persia restored to the 

limits which it attained under Darius I. 
So nearly had Chosroes driven Heraclius to despair that he pre- 
pared to take refuge in Carthage, but his design was prevented by 
the citizens of Constantinople. Thus driven to bay, the emperor 
formed the desperate resolve of attacking his enemy in his own 
country. 



192 Mediceval History. A. D. 

622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of 

Shahr-Barz. 

623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes re- 

treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. 
625. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosroes al- 
lied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies in the field: 
one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct 
attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed., Constantinople 
held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other 
barbarians from the west. 

Winter campaign of Heraclius. 
627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight 
of Chosroes. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned 
without assaulting the city. 
Mutiny of the Persian troops ,at Ctesiphon under two of the 
king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroes. He was succeeded 
by his son, 
628-629 (?). Kobad II. (Shoes), 

who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of 
conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usur- 
pation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was mur- 
dered by his own troops. Reigns of Purandocht and Azermi- 
docht, daughters of Chosroes II., followed by a period of anarchy, 
during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 

632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosroes II., last 
Sassanid king of Persia. 

His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the 
Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 

633. Expedition of Kaled (the " sword of God ") to Hira. Defeat 
of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates 
fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, suffered a temporary 
check by the loss of the " Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages 
were soon renewed, and extended throughout Mesopotamia. Great 
exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which 
was defeated in the four days' 

636. Eattle of Cadesia, 

by Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas. Loss of the Durufsh-kawani, or 
royal standard of Persia. 

637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. 

Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 
639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture 

of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before 
Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until as- 
sured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk 
the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the 
astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's 
life. 

The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final effort. 
Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in 
the 



A. d. Italy and Germany. 193 

641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall 
of the Sassanid power. Persia henceforward governed 
by the caliphs. Isdigerd III. lived for ten years a 
fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). 

SECOND PERIOD. 

FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 
CRUSADES (843-1096). 

§ 1. ITALY AND GERMANY. (See p. 187.) 

843-875. Carolingians in Italy. 

After the death of two sons of Lothar I., Ludwig the German 
and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance by the treaty of 
Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland, Lotha- 
ringia or Lothringen (Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.) was an- 
nexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion 
(Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boun- 
dary, the Meuse. 

After the death of Ludwig II., who was the eldest son of Lothar I. 
(875), Charles the Bald became Emperor (f 877). 

843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 
843-876. Ludwig the German. 

Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially 
with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), 
by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this 
epoch harassed almost beyond belief. In 845 simultaneous attack by 
the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Ludwig the 
German's son, 

876-887. Charles the Fat, 

at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann (f 880) and 
Ludwig (f 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the 
Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andernach, 876) and Italy. Charles 
the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the 
West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Mon- 
archy of Charles the Great, with the exception of cisjurane 
Burgundy (Dauphine, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became 
a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed by 
East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris 
by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Tribur (887), and died 
almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 

887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the 
German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the 
Northmen upon the Dyle (at Lowen, 891), and in alliance with the 
Magyars, a nomadic Finnish tribe, which had gradually made its 
way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of 
13 



194 Mediceval History. A. D. 

Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the 
founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, 
and was crowned Emperor (896). His son, 

899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), 

was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of 
Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 
they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia 
and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), 
was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia : 
Adalbert of Babenberg against Rudolf, bishop of Wurzburg, of the 
family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert 
executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. The 
monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies : Saxony, Fran- 
conia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lotharingia. After Lud wig's death the 
aged Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, refused the crown, and se- 
cured the election of 

911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, 

by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars. 
Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his 
own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtain recognition of his sover- 
eignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the Illustrious and duke 
of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, 
became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 

919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. 

In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his death- 
bed, and seconded by his brother, Eberhard, the Saxons and Franks 
elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 

919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German 
monarchy. 

Henry compelled Burkhard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), 
and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy. 

924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry con- 

cluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunity 
for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 

925. Henry regained Lotharingia. 

Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merse- 
burg) and construction of new ones (Quedlinburg, Goslar), which at a 
later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding of 
cities by Henry himself, but in his reign the Saxons were gradually 
accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. 

Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark was 
established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (after 
the retirement of margrave (Markgrqf) Gero, 963) were formed the 
Altmark or Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Lau- 
sitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenzen (929). Wars with 
the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and with 
the Danes (Gorm the Old). Creation of a mark between the Eider 
and Sley (934), afterwards called Mark Schleswig. 



A. d. Italy and Germany. 195 

Henry refused to pay the promised tribute to the Magyars, who 
thereupon made a new inroad. 

933. Victory of Henry over the Hungarians (on the Un- 
strut?). 1 Henry died in 936. He was succeeded by his 
eldest son by Mathilde, 

936-973. Otto L, the Great, 

who was elected by Saxons and Franks, and crowned at 
Aachen by the archbishop of Mainz. Homage of the princes of all 
the German races (Stamme). First appearance of the four court 
offices : duke of Lotharingia, Chamberlain ; duke of Franconia, Stew- 
ard ; duke of Swabia, Cup-bearer ; duke of Bavaria, Marshal. 

Countless swarms of Hungarians crossed Franconia (937), to in- 
vade Saxony. Defeated and pursued by Otto, they took a western 
direction, and ravaged France as far as the Loire. 

Otto defeated the rebellious duke of Bavaria, and drove him from 
his duchy, and subdued a revolt of Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and 
his own half-brother, Thankmar, who fell in the battle on the Eres- 
burg (938). Henry, Otto's younger brother, rebelled, and was de- 
feated by Otto along with his ally Giselbert, duke of Lotharingia, at 
Birthen, on the Rhine ; the rebels, with whom Eberhard made com- 
mon cause, called in the assistance of the French. Eberhard fell at 
Andernach, Giselbert was drowned on his flight, Henry fled to 
France (939). A murderous assault which Henry made upon his 
brother after he had received forgiveness failed ; Henry threw him- 
self upon the king's mercy, received forgiveness a second time (941), 
and became henceforward, with his brother Bruno, archbishop of 
Cologne (since 953), the king's chief reliance. Otto gave Lotha- 
ringia in 944 to Conrad the Bed, the ancestor of the Franco-Salic 
royal house, who four years afterwards became his son-in-law. Otto 
made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria (947). 

Wars with the Wends, conducted by margrave Gero; with the 
Danes, under Otto himself, who advanced to Jutland (Mark Schleswig 
given to Hermann Billung) ; with Boleslav, duke of Bohemia (950), 
who became a vassal of the empire ; and with the Hungarians, princi- 
pally under the command of Henry. 

948. Otto appointed his son Liudolf (by Editha) duke of Swabia. 
946-950. Otto interfered in the French wars. He protected King 
Louis IV. against Hugo, count of France, both of whom were 
his brothers-in-law. 
951. First expedition of Otto's to Italy against Berengar II. of Ivrea. 
Otto released and married Adelheid, the widow of King 
Lothar (of the house of Burgundy), and then nineteen years 
of age. Berengar submitted to Otto as his suzerain (952). 

953. Liudolf, Otto's son, and Conrad, duke of Lotharingia, Otto's son- 

in-law, rebelled against the king. 

954. New inroad of the Hungarians, who swept through Germany, 

ravaging as they went, to France ; the rebels were in alliance 

i Probablv not at Merseburg. See V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. der Deutschen 
Kaiserzeit, I. 4 , 232. 



196 Mediceval History. A. d. 

with them. After a severe struggle and several fruitless at- 
tempts at reconciliation, Liudolf and Conrad submitted. They 
were forgiven, but deprived of their duchies. Archbishop 
Bruno received Lotharingia; duke Burkhard, Swabia. Bavaria, 
still in revolt, was subjugated by Otto and his brother Henry. 
New inroad of the Hungarians. 

955. Victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld 

Aug. 10. (Augsburg). Conrad fell in the battle. The Bavarian 
Ostmark, which was afterwards transformed into the duchy of 
Austria (Oesterreich), reestablished. Victorious expedition 
against the Wends, whom Otto defeated on the Rekenitz. 

957. Liudolf died in arms against Berengar, who was in rebellion. 

981. Second expedition of Otto's to Italy, Pope John XII. having im- 
plored his assistance against Berengar. Otto hastened to Borne, 
where he 

962. Renewed the imperial office. Holy Roman Em- 
Feb. pire of the German Nation. 

While Otto was engaged in the war with Berengar in Lom- 
bardy, John XII. endeavored to free himself from the impe- 

963. rial protection and allied himself with Otto's foes. The em- 
Nov. peror advanced upon Rome and captured the city ; John fled. 

The Romans were obliged to promise never to elect another 
Pope without the consent of the emperor. John was deposed 
by a synod in Rome, and Leo VIII. elected Pope. 

964. A revolt of the Romans quickly suppressed. While Otto 
Jan. was again absent in northern Italy, where Berengar had, 

meantime, been obliged to surrender (he died as prisoner in 
Bamberg), Leo was expelled by the Romans, and John returned, 
but soon died in consequence of his dissipation. The Ro- 
mans choose Benedict Pope. Otto captured Rome the second 
time, deposed Benedict, and reinstated Leo. 
966-967. Third expedition to Italy. Otto's son, Otto II., already 
crowned as German king, received the imperial crown at Rome. 
Otto I. died at Memleben, near Merseburg. His sepulchre is 
in the cathedral of the bishopric of Magdeburg, which he had 
created. 

973-983. Otto II., highly gifted, but passionate, husband of 
the Grecian princess Theophano. 

976. Otto's cousin, Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, insti- 
gated a conspiracy against the emperor, was conquered and 
deposed. Bavaria given to Otto of Swabia, son of Liudolf. 
Carinthia separated from Bavaria and made a duchy. Luit- 
pold of Babenberg received the (Bavarian) Eastmark. 

978. Otto surprised by Lothar, king of France, escaped with diffi- 
culty, reconquered Lotharingia, invaded France, and besieged 
Paris, but without success. 

980-983. Wars in Italy. The emperor crossed the lips, to Rome, 

981. advanced into southern Italy, defeated the Greeks and Sara- 



A. d. Italy and Germany. 197 

982. cens at Colonne, south of Cotrone, but was afterwards defeated 
by them further south on the Calabrian coast 1 where his army 
was annihilated. 

983. Victorious advance of the Danes and Wends ; destruction of the 

bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg. Otto II. died in 
Rome. 

983-1002. Otto III., three years old. 

Henry the Quarrelsome's claim to the guardianship, and to 
the crown itself, was denied, but Bavaria, without Carinthia, 
was returned to him. Otto's mother, the Grecian Theophano, 
conducted the regency in Germany, his grandmother, Adelheid, 
in Italy ; after the death of Theophano (991), Adelheid and 
Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, conducted the government until 
the young prince took the reins in 995. From his great intel- 
lectual endowments known as the " Wonder of the World," 
he was dreamy and unpractical. Three Roman expeditions. 

996. On the first expedition Otto was crowned by Gregory V. 

998-999. On the second his teacher Gerbert was elected pope as 
Sylvester II. Attempt of Crescentius to throw off the German 
yoke and restore the ancient republic. He was defeated and 
executed. It was Otto's design to make " golden Rome " the 
imperial residence and centre of a new universal empire. 

1000. Journey through Germany, pilgrimage to the grave of St. 
Adalbert, foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen. A wide- 
spread belief that this year would bring the end of the world 
and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven led thousands of 
people to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome. 

1001. During his third visit to Italy, revolt of the Romans. Otto 
died in the castle of Paterno at the foot of Soracte. 

1002-1024. Henry II. (the Saint), 

son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, great-grandson of 
Henry I., was elected kmg at Mainz, after his rival, Eckard, margrave 
of Meissen, had been murdered. Henry II. enforced the acknowl- 
edgment of his sovereignty, particularly from Hermann, duke of 
Swabia. 
1004. First expedition to Italy against Ardoin of Ivrea ; Henry 

crowned king of Italy in Pavia. 
1004-1018. Wars with Boleslav, king of Poland, who was compelled 

to give up Bohemia, but retained Lusatia. 
Foundation of the bishopric of Bamberg (1007). Increase in the 
power of the church. Reform of the monasteries. Energetic en- 
forcement of the public peace. 
1014. Second expedition to Italy. Henry crowned emperor in 

Rome. Ardoin gives up his resistance (died in a monastery, 

1015). 
1016-1018. Henry went to war to secure his inheritance in Bur- 

1 The battlefield is unknown; it was not at Basentello. See V.Giesebrecht, 
Gesch. d. deutschen Kaiserzeit, l. 4 597. 



198 Medieval History. A. d. 

gundy, which had been resigned in his favor by the last king 
of Burgundy, 1 Rudolf III. (1016) . 
1022. On the third expedition to Italy, Henry fought with the Gre- 
cians in lower Italy, with the assistance of the Normans who 
had settled there in 1015. Henry died July 15, 1024. 

1024-1125. Franconian or Salian Emperors. 

Election held at Oppenheim between Mainz and Worms, — 
the first election in which princes of all the tribes had partici- 
pated. 
After hesitating a short time between the two Conrads, cousins, 
the princes chose the elder, the son of the Frankish count Henry, 
eldest son of Otto of Carinthia, over the younger, the son of Conrad, 
younger son of Otto of Carinthia. 

1024-1039. Conrad II. (the Salian). 

1025-1030. Revolt of the Babenberger, Ernst, duke of Swabia, step- 
son of Conrad, son of his wife Gisela, resulting from the con- 
flicting claims of the emperor and of Ernst as the personal 
heir of Henry II., upon Burgundy (Aries). Ernst fell in bat- 
tle in 1030. 
1026. Expedition to Italy. Conrad crowned king of Italy in Milan, 
but obliged to bring Pavia and Ravenna to submission by force 
of arms. Crowned emperor, 1027, in the presence of Cnut the Great, 
king of England and Denmark, and Rudolf III. of Burgundy (Aries). 
The Eider made the boundary between Germany and Denmark, 
Schleswig, therefore, was abandoned to the Danes. 

Invasion of Germany by the Poles under Mieczeslav II., where they 
ravaged the country to the Saale, and carried 10,000 prisoners to 
Poland. Conrad hastened from the Rhine, and provided defences 
against a new inroad, but attacked the Hungarians, though without 
success (1030). In 1031 Conrad attacked the Poles, forced them to 
surrender their prisoners, and restored Lusatia to the empire. Miec- 
zeslav became the Emperor's vassal (1032). 

After the death of Rudolf III. (1032), Burgundy, that is, the 
kingdom of Aries, which was formed in 933, by the union of cisjur- 
ane and transjurane Burgundy (p. 193), was, in three campaigns, 
wrested from the hands of Odo, Count of Champagne, who claimed it 
as heir of Henry II. and united with the empire. At a later time, 
however, the Romance portions of Burgundy, the lands along the 
Rhone, Saone, Isere, and Durance, fell to France ; the Alamannian por- 
tions (Franche Comte, Switzerland) remained a part of the empire. In 
Italy the small fiefs were made legally hereditary, and this became 
the common custom in Germany. To counterbalance this tendency 
Conrad seems to have designed doing away with ducal offices, and 
making the royal supremacy immediate and hereditary throughout all 
German lands. 

1036. On his return from a second expedition to Italy, Conrad 
1039. died at Utrecht. His son had been crowned at Aachen in 
June 4th his boyhood, and now succeeded to the throne as 
1 Otherwise known as the kingdom of Aries. — Trans. 



A., d. Italy and Germany. 199 

1039-1056. Henry III. (called " the Black ")• The imperial 
power at its highest point. 
King Henry was for a time, also, duke of Bavaria, Swabia, and 
Franconia. The ducal throne in Carinthia was long vacant. 
1042-1044. In Hungary the king, Peter, whom Henry had rein- 
stated at the expense of three campaigns, became a vassal of 
the empire. Extension of the Bavarian Eastmark to the 
Leitha. 
Tedious wars with the unruly Godfrey the Bearded, duke of upper 
Lotharingia, which was at last (1049) given to the Alsacian count 
Gerhard, the ancestor of the house of Lorraine. 1 Godfrey went to 
Italy (1054), where he married Beatrix of Tuscany. Henry favored 
the attempt to introduce the Treuga Dei (p. 203). Proclamation of 
a general king's peace in the empire. 

1046-1047. First expedition to Rome. Henry caused a synod to 
depose the three rival Popes (Sylvester III., Benedict IX., 
Gregory VI.), each of whom was accused of simony, and appointed 
a German, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, Pope, as Clement II., who 
crowned him emperor (Christmas, 1046). After Clement, Henry 
appointed three German Popes in succession. He invested Drogo, son 
of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville, with Apulia. 
1055. Second Roman expedition. Henry died at Gozlar, Oct. 28, 
1056. He was succeeded by his son, 

1056-1106. Henry IV., six years old, 

who had been crowned king at the age of four. Spoiled in his 
youth, he grew to manhood passionate but weak. His mother, Agnes 
of Poitou, the regent, gave Bavaria to the Saxon count Otto of Nord- 
heim, Carinthia to Berthold of Zahringen, Swabia to her son-in-law, 
Rudolf of Rheinfeld. Abduction of the young king from Kaiserswert 
to Cologne (1062) by Archbishop Anno, who was soon obliged to share 
the administration of the empire with Adalbert, the ambitious arch- 
bishop of Bremen (1065). Conspiracy of the princes against Adal- 
bert of Bremen. Imperial Diet at Tribur (1066). Adalbert banished 
from court for three years (f 1072). 

Otto of Nordheim deposed from the dukedom of Bavaria, which 
was given to his son-in-law, Welf son of the margrave Azzo of Este. 
(The house of Welf was extinct in the male line.) Magnus, duke of 
Saxony, kept in confinement. Revolt of the Saxons, whom Henry had 
displeased by the erection of numerous fortresses hi their land. 
Flight of Henry from the Harzburg (1073), humiliating peace, de- 
struction of the Harzburg. Henry defeated the Saxons on the Unstrut 
(1075). Contest with Pope 

1073-1085. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 

descended from a family having a small estate in southern 
Tuscany. He was educated at the monastery of Cluny. He had, as 

1 In possession of Lorraine down to 1737. See Modern History, Second 
Period, § 3. 



200 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

cardinal-subdeacon, afterwards as archdeacon and chancellor, con- 
ducted the temporal affairs of the papacy under five Popes. 

Strict enforcement of the celibacy of the clergy, war against simony 
(Acts viii. 18), and lay investitures, whereby is meant the investi- 
ture of clergy with the secular estates and rights of their spiritual 
benefices by the temporal power, by means of the ring and staff. 

Gregory in alliance with Robert Guiscard, duke of the Normans, 
and with the dissatisfied princes in Germany. Henry excommuni- 
cated (1076) ; suspended from his royal office by the Diet at Tribur 
(Oct. 1076), and the ultimate decision referred to a Diet to be held at 
Augsburg in February, 1077. A few days before Christmas Henry 
left Speier in secret with his wife, son, and one attendant; crossing 
the Alps under great hardship, 

1077. Henry humbled himself before the Pope at Ca- 
Jan. 25-28. nossa, 

a castle belonging to the Pope's firm friend, the powerful 
Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany. After three days' delay, passed 
by Henry in the garb of a penitent in the snow-covered castle court, 
Gregory admitted him to his presence, and gave him a conditional 
absolution. 

Fortune turned in Henry's favor. Rudolf of Swabia, whom the 
malcontents in Germany had elected king (March, 1077) at Forch- 
heim, was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle on the Mister 
(1080). Swabia given to Frederic of Hohenstaufen, Henry's son-in- 
law (1079). 

Henry, a second time excommunicated (1080), went to Italy, cap- 
tured Rome, and was crowned by Clement III., a Pope of his own 
creation. Gregory VII., besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, was re- 
leased by the Norman, Robert Guiscard, and died (1085) at Salerno. 
{JDilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, propterea morior in exilid). 

The influence of Gregory VII. had been felt in all parts of the 
Christian world. It was under his auspices, some have claimed at 
his suggestion, that William of Normandy undertook the conquest of 
England. 

Henry was involved in a contest with a new king set up by the Sax- 
ons, Hermann of Salm, son of the count of Luxemburg. Hermann, 
however, abdicated in 1088, and died the same year. Submission of 
the Saxons upon receiving assurance that their ancient privileges 
should be respected. 

The church was still hostile. Marriage of Matilda of Tuscany 
with Welf V., son of duke Welf of Bavaria. 

1090-1097. Third expedition to Italy. Henry captured Mantua 
after a siege of eleven months, but was in general unsuccess- 
ful. Revolt of his son Conrad (1092). Henry returned to 
Germany in 1097, in which year the bands of the first cru- 
saders, under Walter of Perejo and Peter the Hermit, crossed 
Germany. War with Conrad (died 1101), and afterwards with 
Henry's other son, Henry, who imprisoned his father. Flight 
of the emperor to Liittich, where he died Aug. 7, 1106. He 
was succeeded by his younger son, 



A. r>. France. 201 

1106-1125. Henry V. 

The king went to Rome, took Pope Paschal II. prisoner, and 
forced him to perform the coronation and acknowledge the imperial 
right of investiture (1111). As soon as the emperor had left Italy 
the Lateran Council declared the concessions invalid as having been 
extorted by force, and a second council at Vienna excommunicated 
Henry. 

Wars with German princes who were in revolt, especially with 
Lothar of ^ Saxony, and the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne. Vic- 
tory of the Saxons at Welfesholze, near Mansfeld (1115). The war 
of the investiture was ended, after a long contest with Calixtus II., 
by the 

1122. Concordat of Worms. 

Election of bishops and abbots in Germany to take place in 
the presence of the emperor or his representatives ; investiture by the 
emperor must precede consecration, but was to be conferred not with 
the ring and staff, but with the sceptre. In Italy and Burgundy in- 
vestiture was to follow canonical election and consecration. Ecclesi- 
astics holding secular benefices were bound to perform the feudal 
duties. {See p. 218.) 

§ 2. FRANCE. {Seep. 187.) 

843-987. Carolingian kings of the Franks, 
843-877. Charles the Bald. 

His rule was limited to the neighborhood of Laon; Brittany and 
Septimania were independent ; his supremacy in Aquitania was but 
nominal. Ravages of the Northmen incessant, daring, terrible. Sack 
of Saintes, Limoges, Bordeaux, Tours, Rouen, Orleans, Toulouse, Ba- 
yeux, Evreux, Nantes. Some quarters of Paris, even, were ravaged. 
Lotharingia divided between France and Germany by the treaty of 
Meersen (870). Ourthe, Meuse, Jura, the boundary between Germany 
and France. Charles wasted his energy striving for the imperial 
crown. 

Fiefs proclaimed hereditary at the diet of Chiersi (877). Charles 
died on Mont Cenis, returning from an unsuccessful expedition to 
Italy. Rise of scholasticism. Joannes Scotus Erigena. Hincmar of 
Rheims. Charles was succeeded by his son, 
877-879. Ludwig the Stammerer (Louis II., le Begue). 
879-882. Ludwig III. (Louis III.) in the north of France. 
879-884. Karlmann in Aquitaine, and over the whole kingdom after 
882. The ravages of the Northmen increased in frequency and dura- 
tion in spite of Ludwig's victory at Saucourt in 881 {Ludwig- 
slied). Revolt of Boso, duke of cisjurane Burgundy (879). The 
heir of Ludwig II., Charles, being but five years old, the nobles chose 
884-887. Charles the Fat of Germany, 

king, thus uniting the whole empire once more in one hand. 
Siege of Paris by the Northmen under Rollo (Hrolf) in 885. 
Heroic defence by Eudes {Odo), count of Paris. Charles, consent- 
ing to buy the retreat of the Northmen, was deposed in 887. (Died 
in 888 in Germany.) 



202 Mediceval History. A. D. 

The empire of Charles reduced to six clearly distinct states : Italy, 
Germany, Lorraine, Provence, Transjurane Burgundy (formed by 
the union of western Switzerland and Franche Comte, under Rudolf 
I., nephew of Eudes), France. In France the nobles passed over 
the infant Charles, and elected 
888-898. Eudes, count of Paris, son of Robert the Strong. The 

opposition party among the nobles advocated the claims of 
893-923. Charles III., the Simple, who was not generally acknowk 

edged until after the death of Eudes. In his reign the 

911 (?)• Northmen gained a permanent foothold on the 
Seine (Normandy), under Rolf (Rollo), the first duke of Nor- 
mandy, with feudal sovereignty over Brittany. Treaty of St. Claire 
sur Epte, near Ghisors. Baptism of Rollo under the name of Robert. 
Revolts against Charles. Robert, duke of France, brother of Eudes, 
proclaimed king, but slain in the battle of Soissons (923). His place 
was filled by his son-in-law, Rudolf of Burgundy. Charles treacher- 
ously seized by Herbert of Vermandois and imprisoned (died in 929). 
His wife, Eadgyfu (Edwina), fled to her brother ^Ethelstane, king of 
England, with her three-year-old son Ludwig IV., hence called d' Outre 
Mer (Beyond Seas). Rudolf dying in 936 without issue, the nobles, 
Hugh the White, duke of France (f 956), Herbert of Vermandois, and 
William Longsivord of Normandy, recalled 

936-954. Ludwig from Beyond Seas (Louis IV., d'Outremer), 

in whose reign the country was torn with civil war between 
the king, Hugh the White, or Great, and Otto, king of Germany (east 
Franks). Ludwig was succeeded by his son, 

954-986. Lothar, 

who was under the influence of Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the 
Great. An unsuccessful attempt to acquire Lorraine brought on an 
invasion of France by Otto II. of Germany. Lothar was succeeded 
by his son, 

986-987. Ludwig V. (le Faineant), who, after a short and stormy 
reign, died suddenly (987), without issue. The direct line of 
Charles the Great was extinct. The only man who had a 
claim to the succession was the uncle of Ludwig, Charles, duke 
of Lorraine, a vassal of the emperor. 

987-1328. Capetian dynasty, direct line. 
987-996. Hugh Capet 

was chosen king, but was powerless to resist the great feudal 
nobles, each of whom surpassed the king in military power and ex- 
tent of territory (dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Aquitaine; 
counts of Flanders, Champagne, Vermandois). The royal domain 
reached from the Somme to the Loire, with Normandy and Anjou on 
the west and Champagne on the east. Paris in the centre was the 
capital of the new French monarchy, as Laon had been the capital 
of the old German kingdom. Capture of Charles the Carolingian. 
Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. Un- 
der Hugh's son, 



A. d. England. 203 

996-1031. Robert, the royal power was wasted to a shadow. The 
king, pious, weak, and absurd, was involved in domestic trouble 
and in constant wars with the nobles. Rising of the serf's (997). 
Famine (1030-1032). The Vexin on the Seine given to Normandy. 
Robert's son, 
1031-1060, Henry I., 

retained scarcely a trace of power, beyond the nomination of 
the bishops. 

Introduction of the "Truce of God" (Treuga Dei) by the clergy 
(at first [1041] in Guienne), whereby a cessation of all feuds was en- 
joined by the church during church festivals and from Wednesday 
evening to Monday morning in every week (only 80 days in a year avail- 
able for warfare). The crown having now become hereditary, Henry 
was succeeded quietly by his son, 
.1060-1108. Philip I., 

whose long reign, distinguished by no deeds of his own, is re- 
markable for two important events : the conquest of England by the 
Normans (1066), and the first crusade (1096). (See p. 226.) 

§3. ENGLAND. (Seep. 181.) 

828-1066. England under the West Saxon kings. 
828-337. Ecgberht, king of Wessex (p. 180), ruler of Sussex, Kent, 
Essex, overlord of Mercia, East Anglia, Norihumbria, Wales, 
and Strathclyde. 

Ravages of the Northmen. Pouring in swarms from the northern 
kingdoms of Denmark and Scandinavia, these pirates, the vikings, 
harassed England and the continent almost beyond belief. The Eng- 
lish called the Northmen " Danes," although not all their assailants 
came from that kingdom. The Northmen were still heathens. The 
epoch of their invasions falls into three divisions : I. (789-866) 
Period of invasion and ravage without settlement. II. (866-1003) 
Period of settlement and conquest in various parts of the country. 
III. (1003-1066) Period of political conquest. The first recorded 
attack was in 789 (p. 180). In 834 Sheppey was ravaged. Defeat 
of the Danes at Hengestesdun (836). 

Ecgberht was succeeded by his son 2Ethelwulf (837-858) . In 851 
the Danes took London and Canterbury ; in 855 they wintered for the 
first time in Sheppey. JEthelwulf married Judith, daughter of Charles 
the Bald, king of the West Franks. He was succeeded by his son 
-Ethelbald (858-860), who married his father's widow. On his 
death Judith returned to the continent and married Baldwin, after- 
wards count of Flanders. From this union descended Matilda, wife 
of William the Conqueror. iEthelbald was succeeded by his brother 
^Ithelberht (860-866), who was followed by his brother, 

866-871. iEthelred I. 

Settlement of the Danes in Northumbria (romance of Ragnar 
Lodbrog). The Danes in East Anglia (866), in Mercia (868). 

870. East Anglia conquered and settled by the Danes. Martyrdom 
of St. Edmund, king of the East Angles. 



204 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

Sack of Peterborough and Croyland. Danes in Wessex (871). Nine 
battles were fought with the invaders this .year. At ^Escesdun the 
Danes were defeated by JEthelred and Alfred his brother. 

871-901. Alfred the Great. 

In the earlier years of his reign Wessex was at peace, but the 
other parts of England still suffered from Danish inroads. In 876 
Danes settled in Northumbria, and Guthorm, Danish king in East 
Anglia, entered Wessex. In 877 lands in Mercia were divided among 
the Danes. 
878. The Danes ravaged Wessex. 

iElfred took refuge in the forest. Erection of the fortress of 
Athelney. Defeat of the Danes at Ethandun. Treaty of Wedmore, 
between JElfred and Guthorm. The Danes left Wessex, but East 
Anglia and a part of Mercia were given up to them. London, how- 
ever, was retained by iElfred. The country of the Danes, Danelagh, 
as it came to be called, now embraced the larger part of England. 

880-893. Peace in Wessex. 

iElfred was a skilful warrior but no lover of war. His genius 
was for civil government. Revision of the laws; separation of the 
judicial from the executive department. Trial by jury was not intro- 
duced by iElfred; that institution was of Norman origin, a develop- 
ment of principles of old Frankish law. Creation of a fleet (882). 
Submission of several Welsh provinces. Encouragement of learning. 
Bseda's Ecclesiastical History, Orosius' History, and Bcethius' Consola- 
tion of Philosophy, translated into Anglo-Saxon by iElfred. Voyages 
of Othhere and Wulfhere along the northern shores of Europe under- 
taken at iElf red's request. Asser. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
probably put into shape in this reign. 

The Danish war broke out again in 893 with an invasion of Kent. 
Defeat of the Danes at Buttington. In 901 Alfred died. He 
left five children : two sons, Eadward and JEihelweard, and three 
daughters, .ffithelflged the " Lady of the Mercians," wife of JEthelred, 
ealdorman of West Saxon Mercia, JEthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury,. 
JElfihryih, wife of Baldwin II., count of Flanders, son of Baldwin and 
Judith (p. 203). From this union descended Matilda, wife of Wil- 
liam the Conqueror. 

901-925. Eadward the Elder. 

Erection of fortresses along the Mercian frontier by Eadward 
and JEthelflced. Conquest of the Five Boroughs {Derby, Lincoln, Leices- 
ter, Stamford, Nottingham) by iEthelfked. Annexation of Mercia to 
Wessex. Conquest of East Anglia and Essex. Submission of Strath- 
clyde and all the Scots (924). Eadward lord of all Britain. Wes- 
sex, Kent, Sussex, he ruled by inheritance; Mercia, Essex, East Anglia, 
by conquest f-om the Danes ; Northumberland, Wales, Scotland, Strath- 
clyde, as overlord. Eadward died in 925, and was succeeded by his 
son 

925-940. iEthelstan. 

League of Scots, Welsh, and Danes crushed in 926. Again 



A. D. England. 205 

renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of the allies in 
the 

937. Battle of Brunanburh. 

JEthelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmund (940- 
946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs 
and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as a fief to Malcolm, king of 
Scots. Dunstan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Ead- 
mund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A 
revolt of the Danes was crushed in 954 ; final submission of the 
Danelagh. Eadwig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with 
Dunstan, and drove him from the country. He was succeeded by his 
brother, 

959-975. Eadgar, 

the under king of Mercia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood 
high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and 
monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Mainte- 
nance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Eadward 
(the martyr), murdered 978. 
978-1016. -SJthelred II., the Unready, 1 son of Eadgar, 

in whose reign the political conquer of England was under- 
taken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, 
after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of 
Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the 
East Saxons, fell. (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) 
the plan of buying off the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being 
paid, which were raised by a special tax (Danegeld). In 994 Anlqf 
(Olaf Tryggvesson) and Swegen (Svend with the Forked Beard) rav- 
aged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Northmen 
in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 
1015. 

1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) 
Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers) 
by order of JEthelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of Eng- 
land. Marriage of JEthelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., 
duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, 
were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014). Election of 
his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recov- 
ered all that part of England which they had acquired by the treaty 
of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of uEthelred the Danish 
party in England chose Cnut king, but the English party, which 
centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of ^Ethel- 
red. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this 
year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Assandun peace was con- 
cluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Lon- 
don ; Cnut received Northumberland and Mercia. The nominal over- 
lordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of 
Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England. 

1 Such is his conventional title; probably "Despisor of Counsel 1 ' would bet- 
ter convey the meaning of " Medeless. ,f 



206 Mediceval History. A. d. 

1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 
1016-1035. Cnut. 

England divided into four governments : Wessex, under 
Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jarls or Earls. 
Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (1027). Laws 
of Cnut (1028). Subjugation of Malcolm, king of Scots (1031). Cnut 
was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035-1010) and Harthacnut 
(1010-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex ; Leofric, earl of Mercia ; 
Siward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnut' 's death the son of 
JEthelred, 

1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor, 

was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, 
and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of 
England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine, 
Leofric, Siward. In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was ex- 
iled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the 
French. Upon the death of Godwine his power passed to his son 
Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward 
as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was 
made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, 
Leo/wine, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold 
(1063). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of Tostig and 
election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of 
Edtvin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward, 

1066. Harold, 

earl of Wessex, was elected king. 

A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by Wil- 
liam, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged be- 
quest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon 
occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy 
about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and 
had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession 
after the death of Eadward. 3. The right of his wife, Matilda (p. 
204). The claim being rejected, William at once prepared to assert 
it by arms. 

Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and 
Tostig, brother of Harold of England. 

Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge. 

Defeat and death of the invaders. William had meantime 
landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated 
in the 

Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac, 

and fell on the field. Eadgar JEtheling, grandson of 
Eadmund Ironsides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, 
with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of WiU 
liam. (See p. 229.) 



A. d. The North. 207 

§ 4. THE NORTH. (Seep. 168.) 

Denmark. 

Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the 
North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his 
son. 

After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the king- 
dom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the beginning of 
our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eighth century the 
famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, 
king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, and ended in 
favor of the Swedes. 

Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with 
Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two 
bands : one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstein; 
the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, FiXnen, etc. Both 
divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by 
numerous petty chiefs (smaa-kongar), among the most famous of whom 
was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head 
of a loose confederacy of the islands. When Jutes and Angles in the 
fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands 
seem to have taken their place in the peninsula. 

Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and 
built a Dannevirk or line of fortresses across the peninsula. Under 
his successor, Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between 
Denmark and the Frankish empire. 

In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of 
Rheims. In 826 Ansgarius, " the Apostle of the North," labored in 
Denmark, but without lasting results. 

Gorm the Old (about 860-935), the first king of all Denmark, was 
a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain 
by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Dannevirke between 
the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and 
Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold 
Blue-tooth (Blaatand), 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Ger- 
many, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Chris- 
tianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard (Tveskjced), 985-1014. 
Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. 205), 
Knut the Great (1014-1035), king of Denmark and of England. He 
passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part 
of Ulf-Jarl to make Hardeknut king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut 
later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. 
Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035-1042) succeeded his father in Den- 
mark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agreement 
whereby whoever should outlive the other should inherit his kingdom. 
Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was suc- 
ceeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of 
Knvt (1047-1076). War for seventeen years with Harold Hardrada 
of Norway was brought to a close in 1064. War with the Wends. 
Svend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under 



208 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1076-1080), St. 
Knut (1080-1086), Olaf Hunger (1086-1095), Erik Ejegod (1095- 
1103), Niels (1105-1135). {Seep. 235.) 

Sweden. (See p. 209.) 

Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. 
According to tradition there were two races in the country besides 
the Finns, the Gota or Gauta (Goths) and the Svea. The Svea traced 
their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the 
first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of 
Uppsala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, which ruled the Svea 
until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that 
they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son 
Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was 
independent before its conquest by Gorm of Denmark, succeeded Ing- 
jald. This was in the seventh century. 

In the eighth (?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where 
Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Den- 
mark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story 
than his father. (Tale of his capture by iElla of Northumberland, and 
of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the 
slaughter of JElla. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be 
noted.) 

In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansga- 
rius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preaching met with great suc- 
cess. Erik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made im- 
portant conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes 
settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation 
of the future empire of Russia (Varinjar, Russ.). 

Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Swe- 
den. War with St. Olaf of Norway. The last king of the Upsala 
line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil 
(1056-1066). (See p. 287.) 

Norway. (See p. 209.) 

According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trmtelje 
of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his 
father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, 
and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, 
as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth cen- 
tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings 
to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-930), completed the 
work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the 
Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- 
booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, 
the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under 
Rolf Ganger (Rollo) in Normandy. Conquest of Dublin by Olauf in 
852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 860-875, etc. Erik 
Blodnxe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jarl 
(988-995). Olaf Tryggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the 



a. d. Spanish Peninsula. 209 

battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olaf the Lap-king of 
Sweden, Svend Tveskceg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sons of 
Hakon Jarl. The victors divided Norway between them. 

Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (985). 
Vinland (America) seen by Bjame, and visited by Leif and others, 
986-1011. See p. 281. 

Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose 
reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf 
(1035-1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, 
or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opslo (Chris- 
tiania), and feU at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 
1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- 
quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides • of Dublin. Death of Magnus in 
Ireland. {See p. 285.) 

§ 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. (See p. 183.) 

755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, 

founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most 
brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth 
centuries. Abd-er-Rahman III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. 
The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 
1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of 

small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Yussuf), sum- 
moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), 
but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. 

Christian Kingdoms. 

Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the 
Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- 
dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. 

Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- 
nally a county of Asturia. 

Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under 
French supremacy, then independent. Sancho 1. assumed the 
title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated 

Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 

1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, 
by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- 
dom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon 
united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms 
in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We 
must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of 
the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent 
after the time of Charles the Bald. 
Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 
1099). (See p. 240.) 

14 



210 Mediaeval History, A. d. 

§ 6. THE EAST. 
Eastern Empire. 

527-565. Justinian L, emperor of the East. Belisarius. 

Narses (p. 175). 

Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus 
juris civilis (Tribonianus), comprising : 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectce 
or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. Novellce, later additions. 

Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody 
contests ("Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- 
stantine (Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. 

Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- 
tions). A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by 
the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 

726-842. Contest over images. Image-breakers (elicovoicKdaTai, icon- 
oclasts) and image worshippers (ei/covoSovAot). 
717^741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 
780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, 
restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the 
imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of 
the imperial crown from the East to the West. 
842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 

867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian line. 

The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. 
The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, 
widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially 
reconquered the provinces which the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn 
from the empire. {See p. 21^0.) 

Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). 

Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun 
(p. 186), the power of the caliphs began to decline. 
935. The Emir al Omra (i. e. prince of princes) received all the 
secular power; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the 
faithful. 969, Egypt independent under Fatimites. 
1058. Seljuk Turks (Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, Malek Shah) at- 
tained the dignity of Emir al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 
1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small 
sultanates {Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium or Mourn). 

India. 

The early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- 
tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over 
four centuries. The Guptas, who succeeded in power the Sahs of 
Surdshha (60 b. c-235 a. d.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 
470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Huns ?), and 
the Valabhis, who dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, 
were the principal power in India, 480-722. 



a. d. The East. 211 

Actual authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Sind 
was the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- 
quered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled the victors. 
About 1000-1186. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. 

The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud 
of Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- 
quered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place 
at Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- 
dition to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) 
Mahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of 
whom, Bahram, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's 
son, Khusru, founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in 
India proper. 
1186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. 

In 1186, Khusru's son was made captive by Muhammed Ghori, 
after which the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni 
passed into the hands of the Afghans of Ghor. Muhammed Ghori 
was killed in 1206. (See p. 2^1.) 

China. (See p. 82.) 

590-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was 
partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms 
(p. 32). 

618-907. Dynasty of Tang, 

founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the 
name of Kau-tsu. The first part of this period down to 718 was a 
brilliant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The 
earlier rulers (Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683; Woo How, 
683-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- 
band's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the 
Tatars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China 
in Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position 
among other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantinople 
in China. 

From 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From 
763 to 780 their inroads were incessant. 

Under Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries 
and nunneries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- 
dhist) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- 
tion of printing. 

907-960. Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, 
Later Han, Later Chow) occupied the throne within this 
period, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen t 
and other provinces independent states arose. 

960-976. Chaou-kwang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder 
of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against 
the Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of Manchuria, estab- 
lishing there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- 
tunate, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). (Seep. 241.) 



212 Mediceval History. A. D. 



Japan. 1 

From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to the close of the sixth 
century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- 
tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasing 
wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actual 
sovereigns and personal commanders. The close of this epoch saw 
the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). 

The seventh century is of surpassing interest in the history of 
Japan, for then it was that causes long working in silence and un- 
seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and political 
life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of the 
Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects behind a veil of 
formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominance 
of the military over the civil power, until the actual government of 
the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into the 
hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring, 
much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose 
final outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known to 
mediaeval Europe, which, with its legitimate offspring, oppression, 
weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. 

These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numerous 
court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. II. The 
creation of numerous offices of state which became the property of 
the court nobility. III. The division of the male population into an 
agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state offices 
into two sections, the civil and the military, and the continuance of 
each in the hands of one group of noble families. 

I. The huge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practice 
of polygamy, which the necessity of providing against the extinction 
of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise at 
present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among them- 
selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fujiwara, the 
most famous of all the huge ; the Sugawara ; the Taira (Heike in 
Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Chinese charac- 
ters). 

II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire caused 
the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of a 
host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the huge, and 
gradually became vested in certain families. 

III. The demand of the growing empire for increased military 
efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into two 
classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all who 
were unfit for military service; they were relegated to a life of un- 
broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quan- 
tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, the 
Samurai, which included all the bravest and most intellectual men in 
Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax received 
from the first class, and not overburdened with military duties, these 

1 Griffis, The Mikado's Empire. Reed, Japan. Adams, History of Japan. 



A. d. Crusades. 213 

men were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and 
learning, forming the best element in the nation. 

IV. The Fujiwara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all 
civil offices, while the military offices were filled from the two families 
of Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the 
Fujiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the 
Mikado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- 
ronment of titled officials, lose all real power, and sink to a mere pup- 
pet in the hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and deposed at 
will ; thus did both emperor and court constantly lose ground before 
the growing influence of those energetic families to whom were given 
the active duties of military command. The generals, or Shoguns, 
became the " Mayors of the Palace " of Japan. So originated the 
dual government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- 
stitutional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- 
ernment were vested in the Shogun or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and 
the religious functions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor, but an un- 
constitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped 
that authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- 
kado, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. 

The natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- 
tary feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. 
794. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and the 

huge, permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. 
1156. Outbreak of war between the families of Gen and Hei (Mina- 
moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military 
offices in peace. (See p. 2^2.) 

THIRD PERIOD. 

EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). 

§ 1. CRUSADES. 

Cause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, 
where St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, had built a vault 
for the Sepulchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- 
rupted after the Fatimites, and yet more after the Seljuks came to 
power ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. 

The hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. 
(1088-1099) assistance. in freeing the holy places, and preached the 
Crusade in Italy (?) and France. 1 Councils of the church at Pia- 
cenza and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- 
versal enthusiasm. (It is the will of God !) 

The undisciplined bands led by Peter, by the French knight Walter 
of Pacy, and his nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Penniless), and others, 
were for the most part, annihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. 

1 V. Sybel Gesch. des ersten Kreuzzuas, 1841, has shown on conclusive 
grounds that the idea of the Crusades originated principally with Pope Urban 
II. It has recently been made doubtful whether Peter of Amiens had been in 
the Holy Land at all before the first Crusade. 



214 Mediaeval History. A. D. 

1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

Leaders of the first Crusade : Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of 
lower Lotharingia ; his brothers, Baldwin and Eustach ; Robert, duke 
of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; 
Stephen of Blois ; Raymond IV., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ver- 
mandois, brother of Philip L, king of France ; Bohemond of Taren- 
tum, son of Robert Guiscard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 200,- 
000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, who 
was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went with the expedition 
as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in this 
Crusade. 

The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymond 
did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack upon 
the territory of Kilij Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 

1097. Nicaza surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege of 
June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Dory- 
July 1. lomm over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separated 

from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conquered 
a principality for himself in Edessa. 
1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes fop 
nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed to 
Bohemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firuz 

1098. (Pyrrhus). Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besieged 
the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in An- 
tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chris- 
tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and scat- 
tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrels 
among them. 

1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessful 
siege of the fortress of Areas. In May they advanced be- 
yond Cmsarea. On the 7th of June the Crusaders, now numbering 
but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimites 
had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks' siege, 

1099. Storm of Jerusalem. 

July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of the 
Resurrection. 

Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, 
with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripoli* 
(Assises du royaume de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, 
Connetable, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the 
Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His 
brother, Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus 
(Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin 
I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldwin II. (died 1131), Fulco of 
Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached 
its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amalric (died 1173), 
Baldwin IV. (died 1184), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), Veil 
(Guy) of Lusignan. 



/l. d. Crusades. 215 

1147-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. 

Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-ed-Deen) 
Zenhi, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of 
the city by bis son Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- 
bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. 

Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for 
Palestine ; the former from Regensburg (Ratisbon), the latter from 
Metz, somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia 
Minor j the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, 
where it was almost annihilated by want and by the opposition of the 
Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- 
lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the 
coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of 
ill health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia 
for Antiochia. The common soldiery continued by land to Cilicia, 
and were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad 
went from Constantinople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and hi 
conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- 



1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre (St. Jean 
d'Acre), or Ptolemais. 

Cause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, 
at Tiberias on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- 
lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty 
of the Ayoubites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- 
mously. 

The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the 
second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, 
spent the winter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- 
quered Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was drowned in the 
Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of 
the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, 
and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) 
during the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy 
of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. 

Richard the Lion-Hearted (Cceur-de-Lion), king of England, 
but French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus 
(French Auguste, a title of respect which was given him later), king of 
France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- 
seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. 
After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached 
Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. 
The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). 

Philip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). 
Heroic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice 
obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. 
The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- 
grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, which 



216 Mediaeval History. a. d. 

he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veit {Guy) of Lusignan (au- 
tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " to 
Henry of Champagne. 

Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recog- 
nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- 
mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the emperor 
thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine) 
and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- 
dering homage. 1 

1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261), 
At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco of 
Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken 
by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, count of Flanders, and 
Boniface, marquis of Montf errat. The Crusaders undertook the siege 
of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the 
Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo), partly in payment for transport. 
At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac 
Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly 
supported by Philip of Swabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople 
with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced 
Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was un- 
able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek 
Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, 
during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. 
(Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second 
capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many 
works of ancient literature. 

Establishment of the Latin empire {Baldioin, emperor) ; many 
coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mont- 
f errat became king of Thessalonica ; French dukes in Athens, Achaia, 
etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. 

Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, 
and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eu- 
xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Palozologus, of the 
Nicsean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 

1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French 
boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many 
were sold into slavery. 
1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 
1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Brienne, 
" king of Jerusalem." 

1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a 
short time. 
Frederic II., emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 

1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden in 
the filth at Acre by Richard's command is not a fable (cf. Tceche, Kaiser 
Ileinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless 
higher political motives, and is sufficiently explained by the alliance of Richard 
with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. 223. 



*. D, 



Crusades. 217 



for not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to 
Acre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), 
Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with 
Sidon, from Sultan Kameel {El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years 5 
armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 

1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. 

Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and 
passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in 
its stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to Damietta 
and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in 
November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan 
Toordn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with 
the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty 
of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- 
ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- 
throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along 
Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course 
of a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 
1268. Antiocliia lost to the Mohammedans. 

1270. Seventh Crusade. "Without result. 

Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of the 

army were carried off by sickness. 
1291. Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians 

abandoned their last possessions in Palestine {Tyre, Berytus, 

Sidon). 
The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In 
spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend 
to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. 

Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the 
Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, 
owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 
3. Rise of independent communities, who bought their freedom from 
their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- 
opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their 
power. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought 
back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography 
and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood 
(chivalry) ; the three 

Religious Orders of Knighthood. 

1. Knights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i. e. knights of the hospital 

of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 
1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade 
(Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the 
maimer of the Templars (Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, 
white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to 
Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. 
Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1526 the order received a gift of Malta 
from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 

2. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 



218 Mediceval History. a. D. 

on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- 
inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 (Hugo de 
Pay ens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was 
transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. 
at the Council of Vienne. 
3. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the 
German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an 
order of knighthood by Frederic of Swabia before Acre, dur- 
ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the 
order at Acre. Under the grand matter Hermann of Salza 
a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen 
Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- 
sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 
1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 
1309 to Marienburg, 1457 to Konigsberg. The land of the order 
was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho- 
lic maintained possession of the German estates. Residence 
of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or- 
der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights, priests, 
brothers in service. 



§2. GERMANY AND ITALY. (See p. 201.) 

1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, 

supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, 
of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony as 
well, and Berthold, duke of Zdhringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) 
against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, 
and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was 
Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV 
(p. 200). 
1132-1133. On his first Roman expedition Lothar was crowned by 

Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of 

Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 
1136-1137. On his second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the 

Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the 
\wo Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return 
Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). 

Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in 
the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the 
overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The We?ids 
were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. 
Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- 
sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the 
Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the 
house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- 
portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the 
Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received 
the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. 



A. d. Germany and Italy. 219 

1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer), 1 so called 
from the castle of Staufen in Swabia. 

1138-1152. Conrad III., 

elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- 
ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. 
War of the G-hibellines (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the 
name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs 
(cf. the genealogical table). 

Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to 
Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. 

1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud 
died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards 
called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the latter's 
mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was 
claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- 
vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsberg, which Conrad 
besieged. In the 

1140. Battle 2 of Weinsberg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- 
pelled to surrender. (" The Faithful Wives of Weinsberg," 
poem by Burger.) 

After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria 
fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott, 3 who married Gertrude, Henry 
the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. 
Albert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- 
denburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- 
mittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, 
were restored to him. 

Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who 
had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- 
cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, 
who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, 
1152, at Bamberg. 

1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, 

one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. 

Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the 
Danish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the 
empire (1152). 

Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, 
and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, 
which had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- 
ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 
1154r-1155. First expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places 
which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 

1 V. Baumer, Gesch. der Hohenstaufen u. ihrer Zeit; Jafftf, Gesch. desd. E. 
unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, Geschichte Friedrichs I. 

2 Recent investigators deny that the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waihlingen I was 
heard here for the first time. 

* So called from his favorite oath. 



220 



Mediceval History. 



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A. d. Germany and Italy. 221 

and emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for 
aid against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman 
Abelard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power 
of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned 
and burnt. 
1153. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 

1156. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- 

arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the 
female as well as the male line. 

1157. Diet at Wurzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did 
homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In 
Besancon the Burgundian nobles submitted again to the em- 
pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- 
eric the royal crown. 

1158-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, 
mcluding Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- 
calian JKAds the rights of the emperor were denned as against the 
cities. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an 
officer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- 
vate war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- 
tween the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, which 
surrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command 

1162. Milan -was destroyed by the inhabitants of the neighboring 

cities. 
1159-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by 
the majority of the cardinals, Victor IV. by the minority 
(who favored the emperor), and recognized by the council 
winch Frederic convened at Pavia. Alliance between Alex- 
ander III. and the Lombard cities. 

1163. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor 
IV. (April, 1164), a new anti-pope, Paschal III., was elected 
by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon 
broke out. 

1166-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by 
Frederic. 

1167. Lombard League between the cities of Lombardy (Cremona, 
Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, and Ferrard) and the cities of the 
Veronese March (Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Trevisd), which had 
united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They 
rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, 
Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. 
The emperor, whose army was almost annihilated by a 
plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to 
Germany. 
In Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between 

Henry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and 

Bremen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put 

an end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion 

undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 

1174-1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy 
over Mont Cenis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry 



222 Mediceval History. A. d. 

the Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The em- 
peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of his heroic cour- 
age, at the 

1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiations 

and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 

1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 

1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was concluded 
at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privileges 
which he had hitherto claimed in the towns ; acknowledged 
the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortify 
themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction. 
By the popular nomination the consuls acquired the rights of 
imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for the 
purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. The 
cities agreed to maintain all just rights of the emperor, a 
recognition of the overlordship of the emperor, which, how- 
ever, they were allowed to redeem by an annual payment. 

Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appear 
at four diets, he was put under the ban of the empire and his fiefs 
declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and de- 
feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the em- 
peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himself 
at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain his 
allodial estates only, Braunschweig (Brunswick) and Luneburg. Divis- 
ion of the old duchy of Saxony. Part of Westphalia was given to 
the archbishopric of Cologne. Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen became 
in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire only. 
The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of Halber- 
stadt, Hildesheim, Lubeck, etc., the counts of Holstein and Oldenburg, 
etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. 

Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of As- 
kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach received Bavaria. 
Henry the Lion was obliged to leave the country for three years. 
He went to the court of Henry II. of England, his father-in-law. 

1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 

1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The emperor 
gave his son Henry, who was now twenty-one, but had long 

1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to Constance, 
daughter of Roger II., aunt and heiress of William II., the 
last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 

1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. 215). His son, King Henry, 

whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take the 
field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, had 
been sent out of the empire for another three years, but had since re- 
turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in Nov- 
ember, 1189, led Henry to come to an understanding with Henry the 
Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 

1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, but 
stern and relentless. 

1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown at 



A. d. Germany and Italy. 223 

Rome, after he had abandoned Tusculum, which had ever been 
true to his father, to the Romans. The city was destroyed ; Frascati 
grew up near its site. Henry went to Naples to rescue the inher- 
itance of his wife, Constance, from Tancred of Lecce, whom the native 
party in Palermo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples 
for three months. Sickness in the army compelled the emperor to 
return to Germany. 

1192-1194. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first 
treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of 
which was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry 
the Lion, Richard Cceur-de-Lion of England (p. 216), and by a 
marriage between Agnes, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conrad, 
count palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. 
1194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died. War 
with his widow and his son William. The emperor subju- 
gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with 
severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. 
1194. Henry threatened with excommunication for withholding the 

estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 
1196. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united 
with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that 
all fiefs should become hereditary, even in the female line, 
failed in consequence of the resistance of the princes and the 
lesser nobility. 
il97. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- 
spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans 
(conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly 
in Messina, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double 
election in Germany. 

1198-1208. Philip of Swabia, youngest son of Frederic 

Barbarossa. 
1198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Henry 

the Lion. 
1198-1215. War for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen 

and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent III., 
was defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of 
Brunswick. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive 
combat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine 
Otto of Wittelsbach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and crowned 
at Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates 
of Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was 
soon involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put 
forward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VI., as anti-emperor (1212). 
Otto IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near 
Lille) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- 
mains. Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 
1212-1250. Frederic II. also king of the two Sicilies, 

a prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian 
than German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian 



224 Mediceval History. $.. p, 

mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremacy, 
having indeed but little liking for the church ; in his hereditary estates 
he favored the Saracens. 
1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king in 

Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and 
1217. gave Swabia to his young son Henry, and 

1220. had him elected king of Rome (the title given to the Ger- 
man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expe- 
dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had for- 
merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of the 
papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be united 
with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Honorius III. at Rome. 
1222. The emperor's son Henry, solemnly crowned king at Aachen. 

His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelhert, archbishop of 

Cologne (murdered 1225). 

1225. Frederic took as his second wife, Iolanthe, daughter of John 
of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusade 
renewed. 

1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 

1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by a 
contagious disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., the 
octogenarian Gregory IX., placed the emperor under the ban. 

1227. Battle of Bornhovede. The Danes, who under Waldemar 
II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic, 
were decisively defeated. 

1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 

1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops, 
who had invaded them. 

1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germano. Removal of the ban. 
1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. 

Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 
1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lower 

German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup- 
pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and the 
imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement, 
then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with the 
Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunswick-Luneburg, for Otto the 
Child. Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella, 
sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a 
public peace {first publication of a law in German as well as in 
Latin). 

1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In Germany 
Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Henry, 
deposed and put under the ban. 

1237. Frederic II. in Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial 
city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and 
Styria again. 

1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad, the sec- 
ond son of the emperor as German king. 
1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- 
Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too 



A. d. Germany and Italy. 225 

far, prevented the complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference 

of the Pope, who had claims on Sardinia, and was offended at the 

assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption 

of Heinz), the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of 

the title of king of Sardinia. 

1239-1250. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and 
Innocent IV. 

1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated 
anew. Ancona conquered by Enzio. 

1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which 
was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death 
of Gregory. His successor, Innocent IV. (1243-1254), fled to 
Lyons. 

Germany threatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). 
Innocent IV. called a council at 

1245. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- 
posed him, summoned the German princes to a new election, 
and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- 
many the spiritual princes elected 

1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though 
at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, 
at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of 
the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the 
eastern part of that state was joined to the margravate of 
Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate 
Hessen. 

1247-1256. "William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no 
authority in Germany. 

1248. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before 
Padua. His son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese in the 

1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two 
years in a dungeon). 

Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 

1250. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred 
(Dec. 19). He was succeeded by his son. 

1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: William of Holland) 
fought since 1252 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 

1256. William of Holland fell in battle with the Frisians (twenty- 
seven years old). 

1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Fans- 
trecht. 

Richard, Earl of Cornwall, younger son of King John (Lack- 
land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and crowned at 
Aachen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonso 
X. of Castile, grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of Frederic 
Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. 

In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of 
Frederic II., was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, 
son of Conrad IV., afterwards (1258) king. Charles ofAnjou, brother 
15 



226 Mediceval History. A. d. 

of Louis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated 
Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at Beneventum (1266), and 
made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. 
Co nra din went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- 
eric of Austria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). 
He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Lago di 
Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 
1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke 
out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the 
French in Sicily. John of Procida. Peter of Ar agon, king of Sicily, 
Charles of Anion limited to the kingdom of Naples. 

(See pp. 2U, 262.) 
§ 3. FRANCE.! (Seep. 203.) 

The royal domain of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy 
of France (Isle de France and Orleanais). The great vassals, who 
were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced 
to submission in this and the following period. 
1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory VII. First Crusade. 

A long reign, in which the king accomplished nothing. 
1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, 

moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of 
Suger, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible 
growth of the royal power. Marriage of the king's son, Louis (VII.), 
with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, heiress of Poitou, 
Guyenne, and Gascony. 
1137-1180. Louis VII. Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a 

weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less 
disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of 
Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the 
East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who 
married Henry of Anjou, conveying to this prince, who soon became 
king of England, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which 
Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the 
hundred years' war. 

1180-1223. Philip II., Augustus, 

one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, 
but of great political sagacity. (Third) Crusade with Richard Cozur- 
de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but 
made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the 
Chateau Gaillard by Richard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) 

After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur, 
son of Richard's brother Geoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- 
mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- 
dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. in 
relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife, 
Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes of Meran. 
Submission of Philip (1200). 

After the death of Arthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy 

1 Kitchin, History of France. 



A. d. France. 227 

anew. Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. 
The fall of the Chateau Gaillard was followed by the submission of 
Normandy (1204). John having refused to obey the summons of 
Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip 
declared his fiefs forfeited. 

Crusade against the Albigenses, Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist 
sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of 
Beziers and Carcassonne (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay 
all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse 
by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of 
revolted Toulouse (1218). 

War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- 
land and Otto of Germany. Philip, assisted by the cities, victorious in 
the 

1214. Battle of Bouvines : 
Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of Philip's son Louis to England 

(1216). 
1223-1226. Louis VIII. New crusade against the count of Tou- 
louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 
1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope 
Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under In- 
nocent III. 
1226-1270. Louis IX., St. Louis. 

During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who 
repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended 
by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louis 
(p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- 
turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin 
and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- 
nounced his claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, 
northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of 
feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king 
from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- 
uted to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward 
Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. 

During this reign the domain of the crown received the following 
additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhone, 
the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by 
Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase 
(1239) ; Perche (1257) ; Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262). 
Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). 

(See p. 254.) 



228 Mediaeval History. a. d. 

ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY IIL 



ANGLO-SAXON. 

Ecgberht. 

802-837. 
I 

I I 

-ffithelwulf = (1) Judith, who 
837-858. I afterwards in. 

I (2) ^Ethelbald. (3)- 

~\ 



Charles the Bald. 
Emperor. 



FLANDEBS. 



.ffithelbald. .asthelberht. .ZEthelred. .asifred. 

858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. 



: Baldwin I 
| |879. 



Eadward 1 son, 2 dau. 
the Elder. 901-925. 

1 

I j I 

.ZEthelstan. Eadmund. Eadred. 
925-940. 940-946. 946-955. 



./Elithryth = 



Baldwin II. 
f 918. 



NORMANDY. 



Hollo. Arnulf I. 
| f 965. 

William | 

Longsword. Baldwin (III.) 
t 962. 



Eadwig. 955-959. 



Eadgar. 959-975. 
I 



Eadward the Martyr. 
975-978. 
1 



Richard 
the Fearless. 

L_ 

I 



i r 

^Jthelred II.=2 Emma. Richard 
978-1016. the Good. 

I 2 ' 



Arnulf II. 

t 988. 

I 

Baldwin IV. 

f 1036. 



Godwine { 

Earl of Mercia. i 

I I 

Eadmund | Eadward Robert Baldwin V. 

Ironsides. Harold. Eadgyth = the Confessor, the Magnificent f 1067. 
1016. 1066. 1042-1066. or the Devil. 

Eadward "William the Conqueror = Matilda. 

J 1066-1087. 

Eadgar iEtheling. Margaret = Malcolm 

king of Scots. 



Eadgar 
king of Scots. 



)bert. 



Robert. "William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 
1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stepheq 
Matilda — — • c. of Blois. 



Matilda = Geoffre} 1 - of Anjou, 
Plantagenet. 

Henry II. 1154-1189. 
I 



Stephen 
1135-1154. 



Hanry. Kichard Geoffrey. 
Cceur-de-Lion. 

1189-1199. Arthur, 
t 1203. 



John Lackland. 
1199-1216 

Henry III. 1216-1272. 



A. d. England. 229 

§ 4. ENGLAND. {See p. 206.) 

1066-1154. Norman kings. 1 

1066-1087. William L, the Conqueror, 

completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed 
of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two 
languages existed for a long time side by side in England, English, or 
Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French 
Normans or Frenchmen. 

The submission of 1066 was partial, Mercia and Northumbria re- 
maining aloof. 

1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under 
Swegen. Returning from Normandy William bought off the 
Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. 
Northumberland ravaged with fire and sword. 

1071. Revolt of the English under Eadwin and Morkere, which ended 
with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Ely 
in the fens where Morkere had taken refuge with the outlaw Here- 
ward. 

1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easily crushed. 
Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). 
Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, for trouble- 
some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway 
and Denmark averted, 1085. William met his death by accident 
while engaged in a struggle with Philip of France about the Vexin 
(Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 

1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became 
the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by the king 
in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental 
form, placing Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, 
who gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the 
power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of 
fealty from all under tenants to the king direct. The same year 
saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed 
in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened 
with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- 
served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly ii& ■■ 
sisted on. 

William reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by 
Lanfranc, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- 
pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in 
his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod 
held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's 
consent. 

1 Augustin Thierry, Histoire de la conquetede V Angleterre. Green, Hif 
tory of the English People. 



230 MedicBval History. A. D. 

1087-1100. William II., the Bed, 

second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while 
Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- 
man barons in favor of Robert was suppressed by help of the -English 
in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf Flambard. 
Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 
1093. Anselm, abbot of Bee, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. 
He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- 
tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed 
to Rome and left England. 

1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- 
tained the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland 
between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in 
the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 

1100-1135. Henry I., Beauclerc, 

on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England 
and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who 
pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the 
Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of 
William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- 
fessor " restored. 

Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and 
Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 
1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many 
of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by 
treaty without a battle. Punishment of the rebel barons. Robert of 
Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry 
invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 
1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death 
(1134). Henry took possission of Normandy. 

Quarrel with Anselm in regard to investitures, ending, after the 
exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction 
of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories 
and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son 
William by the sinking of the " White Ship " in the Channel (1120). 
Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, son of Fulk the 
Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- 
cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 

1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, 

son of Adela, daughter of William L, and the count of Blois, 
seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son 
Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- 
ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in 
the 

1138. Battle of the Standard, 

at Cowton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury 
and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed 



A. d. England. 231 

in England. Stephen defeated and captured at the battle of Lincoln 
(1141). Matilda was elected Lady of England by the clergy. Her 
severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- 
ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which 
went on with varying success until 1147 when Robert of Gloucester died 
and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- 
land to make good his claim. Without a battle an understanding was 
reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty 
of Wallingford 1153). 

The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English 
history. His weakness, and the confusion of civil war had given 
the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- 
bers throughout England, and each was the home of oppression and 
cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 

1154-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet) 1 in the di- 
rect line. 

1154-1189. Henry II. 

Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the 
suzerainty over Brittany, as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. 
Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Poitou, Guyenne 
and Gascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine 
(1152) ; in all more than half of France. 

The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- 
lish and the Normans. 

The accession of Henry (at 21 • years of age) was welcomed as the 
beginning of a better time. Banishment of the mercenaries main- 
tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- 
toration of estates, which was attended with difficulty, some of the 
new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 
1158. First Welsh war not successful. 

1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- 
bury. Reestablishment of the exchequer, a bureau for assessing 

and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutage, a commutation in 
money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- 
ants. 

1163. Second Welsh war. 

As chancellor, Becket had been the king's servant and friend ; as 
archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even 
in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the 
abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's 
reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- 
siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- 
tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed 
over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the 
king in this respect and on other points involving church and state 
were formulated in the 

1 So called from the bit of broom {genet) which Geoffrey of Anjou, son of king 
Fulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in his helm. 



232 Mediceval History. A. d. 

1164. Constitutions of Clarendon. 

The jurisdiction of secular courts over clerical offenders was 
affirmed, appeal to Rome in such cases was prohibited, the election 
of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- 
sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot 
elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted 
the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and 
appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- 
ters connected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 

1165. Third Welsh war. 

1166. Assize of Clarendon. Ree'stablishment of Frank-pledge, 
or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In 

each shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the 
shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation 
(proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for which the ordeal or 
judgment of God was substituted. 

1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, 
who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with 

the king, and was murdered by four knights of Henry's court, in 
consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 
29,1170). 

Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, 
afterwards the great and privy council. 

1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 
1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been 

made of the authority until Dermod, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, 
did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, 
and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), 
son-in-law of Dermod,, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part 
of Ireland submitted to Henry. 

1172. ^Absolution of Henry. Penance at Becket's tomb, 1174. 

1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest son Henry, and general league of 
French and English lords, Louis VII. and William the Lion 

of Scotland against the king. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William 
who was released only after acknowledging Henry as his suzerain 
(1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 
1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 
1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of 
France. Humiliation and death of Henry II. 

1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion. 

His reign was passed almost entirely away from England, 
Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard was captured by Leopold 
of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in 
captivity, being released at last for a heavy ransom. During his 
absence Eleanor, his mother, was regent. Persecution of the Jews. 
The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John 
resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the 
return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in 
France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Gaillard on the 
Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chalus-Chabrol (1199). 



A. d. England, 233 

During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and 
after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the 
great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 

1199-1216. John Lackland. 

John was recognized in England without opposition and secured 
Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim 
of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 
1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured 

the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor* 
mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at onc$ 
lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to his English king- 
dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) 
was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted 
in the election of Stephen Langton by command of Innocent III. 
(1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited 
with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally 
yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of 
the papacy (1213). 

John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the 
barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France 
(1213). 

1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's 
return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, 
and the confederated lords occupied London. 

12] 5. Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. 
June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 
15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that 
its benefits should reach the lower tenants. 1 Principal 
provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security 
for personal freedom ; no freeman should " be taken, 
imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by 
the judgment of his peers " or " by the law of the 
land " (Art. 39). 2 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 
4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- 
ilium) which could be collected without the consent of the great 
council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of 
the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest 
daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, 
and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be 
convened. 

The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of 
Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, 
declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 

1 Stubbs, Early Plantagenets, 149. 

2 Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisiatur aut utlaghetur 
aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum 
mittemus, nisi per legale judicium pariura suorum vel per legem terrae. 



234 Mediceval History. A. D. 

of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 

19, 1216). 

1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. 

The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The 
English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old 
Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- 
feat of the French fleet off Thanet determined Louis to give up the 
contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 
1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. 
After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by 
Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the 
justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- 
seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third 
reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began 
in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- 
tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign 
policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des 
Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). 

Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- 
forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums 
of money. 

Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained 
only Aquitaine and Gascony. 

1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of 
Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- 
genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon 
took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- 
sumed formidable proportions. 

1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- 
ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in 
which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four 
barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a 
year. 

1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- 
tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford 

annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king 
and his son Edward were defeated in the 

1264. Battle of Lewes. 

May 14. Treaty (Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- 
selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- 
ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the 
clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 

1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament 
Jan. 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (yeu 

this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). 
Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 
1265. Battle of Evesham, 

Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of 
Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). 
In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of 



A. D. The North. 235 

scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus 
Magnum, "the encyclopaedia of the thirteenth century." Mathew 
Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- 
mouth. Romances of Arthur. (See p. 263.) 

§ 5. THE NORTH. 

Denmark. (Seep. 208.) 

1134-1397. 

The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed 
by a period of confusion and wars over the succession (Erik Emun, 
1134-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 
1157-1182. Waldemar I., the Great, 

was elected to the throne. Subjugation of the Wends, who 
had long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of 
Riigen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of 
bishop Absalon. Waldemar's son 
1182-1202. KnutVI. 

was even more successful than his father, and refused to 
acknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, as 
Waldemar had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, 
who received aid from the emperor, by bishop Absalon (1184) ; 
Hither Pommerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, 
" King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count 
of Holstein and other German princes. Conquest of Liibeck and Ham- 
burg. Capture of Adolf of Holstein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus 
of France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226) o Knut was suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 
1202-1241. Waldemar II., the Conqueror, 

the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- 
liant epochs of Danish history. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- 
tion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to 
his nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- 
way and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. 
In return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- 
peror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, 
north of the Elbe and the Elde (Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- 
lenburg). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national 
standard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was 
acquired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured 
by Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- 
borg, in Hanover, for three years. Waldemar obtained his release by 
the payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- 
quests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic countries. Holstein 
ceded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by 
the Pope, and Waldemar tried to regain Holstein, but was defeated 
in the battle of Bornhoeved (1227). The rest of his reign was 
passed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all his con- 



286 Mediceval History. A. d. 

quests only Riigen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- 
nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar 
was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess 
(Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons 
who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the 
political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the 
nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig 
was conferred on Abel. This led to disputes, so that the following 
period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile 
of kings. Erik (1241-1250). Abel (1250-1252). In this reign the 
towns began to send representatives to the council (Danehof). 
Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schleswig, the king claiming 
that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- 
dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with 
the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286). Oc- 
cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the 
queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part 
of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- 
topher II. (1320-1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the 
king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of 
the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. 
No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the 
tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned 
without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the 
clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- 
pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they 
were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a 
year, or lose the right of holding them to military service. The king 
could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. 
No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- 
demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal 
lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, 
only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the 
consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated 
by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- 
yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- 
dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, 
who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles 
drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of 
Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the 
crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- 
land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of 
Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, 

1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, 

was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- 
chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in winch he met with 
success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and 
Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his 
daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark 
restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldemar I. 



A. D. The North. 237 

This success was followed by a general war with Sweden, Mecklen- 
burg, the Hanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen* 
hagen ended disadvantageous^ for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, 
however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and 
Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- 
tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial 
privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 
1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of 
Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates 
elected the son of his youngest daughter Olaf, (1376-1387), then six 
years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hakon as king of 
Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, 
the regent, who, after Olaf's death, 1387, was elected queen in both 
countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and 
Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkoe- 
ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the 
three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.) 

Sweden. (Seep. 208.) 

1066-1397. 

After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by 
wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- 
ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered 
greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors 
arose which was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- 
diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- 
duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the 
Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- 
dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The 
family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- 
tinct with Erik Eriksson Lcespe (1223-1250). Under this family the 
power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- 
den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time 
celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that 
of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- 
1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the 
actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lozspe. Founda- 
tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large 
duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 
1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of 
Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- 
nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom 
to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely 
until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his 
brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris - 
oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt 
which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, 
Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norway fell to 
Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 



238 Mediaeval History. a. d. 

Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been 
pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. 
Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 
1360, he surrendered Skaania, Halland, Bleking to Waldemar 
Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed his son Hakon to Waldemar's 
daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ibert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed 
king, and in the battle of Enkceping (1365) captured Magnus who was 
released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. 
Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power being in the 
hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered 
the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- 
cepted. At the battle of Falkceping Albert was made prisoner and, 
after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 
Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. 

(See p. 276.) 
Norway. (Seep. 209.) 

1103-1397. 

After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three 
sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death 
of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- 
age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, 
who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harold Gille, 
who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. 
There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the 
Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in 
which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161- 
1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon III. (1202-1204), Guttorm the 
child (1204), Inge Baardsen (1204-1217). 
1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. 

son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, 
weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and 
raised Norway once more to an influential position among European 
nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. 
Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots 
in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was 
followed by his son Magnus Lagabozter (1262-1280) who ceded the 
Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication 
of a new code of laws (1264-1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). 
War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War 
with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to 
grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. 
Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, 
and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- 
land, while on her way to claim that crown after the Iatter's death. 
Hakon V. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying 
without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, 
king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus 
bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), 
who in 1362 became co-re{rent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married 



it. D. 



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240 Mediceval History. A. d. 

Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his 
minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered 
the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf 
had inherited in 1376. After Olaf's death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 
1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The 
union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar 
and endured until 1814. At the Union of Calmar (1397) Sweden 
was united with the two kingdoms. (See p. 276.) 

§ 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. (Seep. 209.) 

Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides 
(p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. 
Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the 
Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- 
fined to the kingdom of Granada. 

1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Mmho, granted 
as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son 
liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- 
self King of Portugal (1140). 

Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). 
Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely 

united (1230). 

About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took 

their names from the cities guarded by them : 1. San J ago di 

Compostella (Galicia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on 

the Guadiana. (Seep. 275.) 

§ 7. THE EAST. 

Eastern Empire. (See p. 210.) 

1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the 

Comnenes. 
1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 
1204-1261. Latin empire (p. 216). (Seep. 278.) 

The Mongols. 

1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He 
took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather 
than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols con- 
quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, 
which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- 
ern Russia. 

Temuchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through 
Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 

1241. Battle of Wahlstatt, against the Germans under 

Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although 
victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian 
army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. 



A. d. The Bast 241 

The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was 
under their sway till 1480. 

1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. 
Their immense empire separated into Khanates, {China, Khan- 
ate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran, 
etc.) (Seep. 278.) 

India. (See p. 211.) 

1206-1500. 

The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori 
(p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became 
an independent sultanate under Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi (1206- 
1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty 
(1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the 
Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- 
gol invasions. Allah-ud-din, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring 
expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jeldl-ud-din, his 
uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Guzerat. Capture of 
Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. 
After the death of Allah-ud-din (1316) revolts occurred which were 
suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who 
mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who 
transferred their residence to Tughlakabad. Tuglath was succeeded 
by his son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- 
chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine 
induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the 
misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him 
to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed 
by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- 
hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah 
(1350-1388). 

1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-din had ex- 
tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu 
revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula 
was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 
1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- 
medan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose 
capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- 
volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. 
The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, when it was broken up into 
five kingdoms. (See p. 363.) 

China. (Seep. 211.) 

1101-1398. 

The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaou- 
tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the 
Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- 
pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence 
spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou- 
16 



242 Mediceval History. A. d. 

tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars, or as they now called them- 
selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. 

The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, 
who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 
1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety 
cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) 
his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 
1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the 
Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. 
Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by 
his brother, , 
1259-1294. Kublai Khan, 

Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left 
Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of 
Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- 
trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court 
of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243).. 

The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yuen- 
ching (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) 
endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to 
official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, 
until Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- 
yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed 
liimself emperor under the name of 

1368-1398. Hung- woo, 

the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. 

(See p. 278.) 
Japan. (See p. 213.) 

1156-1392. 

1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very 
famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the 
Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control 
of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under 
the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power 
in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death 
of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of 
Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle 
occurred in the 

1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura, 

near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many 
perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout 
the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their 
name to the present day. 

Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto 
undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five 
men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office 
previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied through- 
out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the pror- 



A. D. The East. 241$ 

inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, 
who shared the government of the province with the civil governor, 
and were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was 
appointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward 
known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the 
power of the Minamoto. 

1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the 
Ho jo ascendency was ToJcimasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, 
who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of 
that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, 
but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as 
Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended 
in 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiwara, who 
held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of 
the sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose familv it remained until 
1333. 

Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had 
kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- 
bassy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, 
was beheaded. 

1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. 

Destruction of the armada by a typhoon; defeat and massacre 

of the survivors upon the island of Taka. 
By this repulse Hojo Tokimune won great praise ; he was, indeed, a 
man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo 
grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado 
until a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashige and Nitta 
Yoshisada, which ended in the 

1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- 
mination of the Hojo family. 

For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was 
monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly 
found authority. 

Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, 
revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival 
Mikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 

1336-1392. War of the Chrysanthemums, 

between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at 
Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. 
Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial 
throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the 
rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. 
During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at 
Kioto) feudalism reached its full development. The country was 
divided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as 
fiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the 
agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of these 
military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as fiefs. 
The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed 
by the daimios, and the kuge'w&s left to abject poverty. {See p. 278.) 



244 MedicEval History. A. D. 



FOURTH PERIOD. 

FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DIS- 
COVERY OF AMERICA. 
1270-1492. 

§ 1. GERMANY. (See p. 226.) 

1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 
1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Kyburg, 

landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was 
elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the 
count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, the 
burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollern. 

Strict enforcement of the public peace. "War with Ottocar, king 
of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction 
of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hun- 
garians, and had inherited Carinthia and Carniola. Ottocar was put 
under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took 
Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottocar 
agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria, 
Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, but received Bohemia and Moravia 
again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the 
war. 

1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near 
Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his 
son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development 
of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthia, 
given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carin- 
thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law. 
Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against 
Eberhard of Wiirtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohen- 
staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wiirtem- 
berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia de- 
scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John 
(Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Haps- 
burg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs held 
immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the 
archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succes- 
sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 

1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted to 
the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of 
Thuringia and Meissen fin opposition to the brothers Frederic 1 
and Diezmann). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by 
the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz, 

1 The title "with the bitten cheek " appears to have been a later invention ; 
his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederic 
II., by the surname "the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried, tier Frtidiffe, 1868. 



A. d. Germany. 245 

without the approval of the archbishops of Cologne and Trier 
and the count Palatine. He fell at Gollheim in personal con- 
flict with 

1298-1308. Albert L, of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who 
had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with 
Philip the Fair, king of France, against the Pope. Albert tried in 
vain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of 
the three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the 
king, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience 
(siege of the castle of Bingen). Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, 
and with Frederic and Diezmami of Meissen, who defeated the im- 
perial army under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from 
Altenburg"(1307). 

Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the 
Aar and Reuss, near the Hapsburg. His widow Elizabeth and his 
daughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for this murder. Through 
the influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king 
bis brother 

1308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- 
emburg, a half-Frenchman. 

1309. The Swiss Cantons received from Henry VII. doc- 
June 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- 
lation to the empire. 

Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. 

Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schwyz seem to 
have been, for the most part, free peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- 
walden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded 
either their persons or their estates. The most extensive landowners 
were monasteries (e. g. the Frauenmiinster in Zurich), and nobles re- 
siding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of 
Hapsburg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate 
since the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapsburg exercised, under 
various legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and 
presided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- 
istration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered 
the actual ruler of the country. 

As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had 
resisted the efforts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship 
into an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted 
in part to withdraw themselves from the stewardship of the Haps- 
burgers. In 1231 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- 
many (p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed 
them from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced 
them under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- 
ple of Schwyz a charter which promised them an immediate tenure 
from the empire. After the middle of the thirteenth century, 
the Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 



246 Mediaeval History, A. d. 

of steward or advocate (Vogt) for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to 
have recognized the charter of Uri, but not that of Schwyz. Imme- 
diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons Uri, Schwyz, and 
Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden 
under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- 
though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- 
tions, this league is to be regarded as the beginning of the Con- 
federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in 
Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle 
of Gollheim (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- 
premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the 
object for which their ancestors had striven. 

The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many 
ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement 
of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of time, 
and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical 
in view of the results of modern investigation. 1 It is first found in 
chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years 
after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents. 2 Neither 
the Oath on the Riitli (1307, Werner Stauffacher, Walther Filrst, Ar- 
nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January 
1308, is historically authenticated. 

The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or of 
thirty individuals, but was the result of many historical events which 
united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the 
inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su- 
premacy. 

As regards the story of Tell, it is now established that neither the 
shooting of the apple from the head of his son, nor the murder of the 
bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- 
garded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the 
Kiissnacht bailiffs of that time there was no Gessler. The legend of 
the shooting of the apple occurs five times outside of the cantons, 
agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives 
the tyrant : in Norway, in Iceland, in Denmark, in Holstein, and on 
the middle Rhine, and, with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- 
land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a 
common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the 
Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth 
century) of the shot of Toko, the Dane, who is said to have lived in 
the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss 
chroniclers had that historian before them. 

Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question 
which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or 
the negative. 8 It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 

1 A. Huber: die Waldstdtte Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, 1861 ; and Koch- 
holz, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschic'hte, 1877. 

2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- 
prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp ( Urhunden zur Ge- 
schichte der eidgenossischen Biinde, 1835 and 1857; Reichsgeschichte, 1845- 1858). 

3 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in 
Uri, and Rochholz (p. 257, note), the latter is almost certainly the case. 



A. D. Germany. 247 

it is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorical. 
It is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in 
the common insurrection, after the murder of the bailiff. It was not 
until later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, 
that his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popular 
belief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy and love of freedom- 
The Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was 
an historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- 
lishment of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- 
tion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public 
meeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people are said to have 
declared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. 
1310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by 
the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- 
ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 
1310-1313. Henry's Roman expedition. He was crowned king of 
Italy in Pavia, and emperor in Rome (1312). 

1314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 
1314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 

1315. Victory of the Swiss confederates in the pass between lake 
Nov. 15. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- 
tria, Frederic's brother. The flower of the Austrian chivalry 
(1500 in number) slaughtered. 

Dec. 9. Renewal of the league between Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden 
at Brunnen. 

1316. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons 
upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth 

and fifteenth centuries the people generally bought oft* the ever 
diminishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the 
league of the confederates, which was joined by one after another of 
the remaining districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control 
of the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria 
had been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After 
1340 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- 
quence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, 
so that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the 
Peace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a state 
of things which had long existed in fact. 

1322. Battle at Ampfing near Muhldorf Frederic of Austria de- 
feated and captured (Schweppermann • the story is probably 
unhistoric). 

1324. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by 
the extinction of the Askanian line, to his son Ludwig, whom he 
afterwards married with Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of 
Tyrol and Carinthia. 

1325. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the throne. 
He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent 
by Ludwig, died 1330. 

1327-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor in Rome. 
(Anti-pope Nicholas V.) 



248 Mediceval History. A. D a 

The Electoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally- 
elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, 
even without papal coronation. 

The violent means adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic 
power led, a year before his death, to the election of Charles, son of 
John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 in the battle of Crecy). Charles was 
not universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 

1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe=> 
mian line. 

1347-1378. Charles IV. 

A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in 
statecraft, and shrewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris 
and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, German, Latin, French, 
Italian). War with the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig 
there appeared in Brandenburg the false Waldemar (1348-1350), who 
was assisted by Charles. 

The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia 
(whence he was styled by Maximilian I., "Bohemia's father, the 
Holy Roman Empire's arch-step-father"). The emperor in 1348 
founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, 
the first in Germany. The Bavarian party elected in opposition 

1349. Giinther of Schwarzburg, king of Germany, but he died in 
Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). 

Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all 
Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 
1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri t 
Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne f 
the so-called eight old cantons. 

1354-1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned 
emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. 
Silesia and Lower Lusatia (Niederlausitz) united with Bohemia. 

1356. Golden Bull. 1 Fundamental law of the empire. 

The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the 
seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long 
time ; 2 three ecclesiastics : 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor 
of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy) ; 
3. Archbishop of Cologne (arch-chancellor of Italy) ; four secu- 
lar: 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal); 5. Count Palatine of the 
Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon-Wittenberg (arch-mar- 
shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chamberlain). Estab- 
lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral 
states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- 
tain regalia (privilegium de non appellando, etc.). The electoral vote 
went with the land. 

1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 

2 The electoral vote had been disputed between the two Saxon lines and 
the two lines of Wittelsbach. It was now assigned to Saxon- Wittenberg and 
the County Palatine, but refused to Saxon- Laucnb»ry and Bavaria. 



A. D. Germany. 249 

1363. Austria acquired Tyrol. The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret 

Maultasch, who outlived her husband, the Bavarian Ludwig, 
elector of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gave 
her county after the latter 's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 
1368. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope 

against the Visconti. 
1373. By the treaty of Fiirstenwalde, Otto the Finne (lazy), the last 

Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to 

Charles IV., in return for an annuity. 

Leagues of the Cities. 

The Hanseatic League. The union of several seaports and trad- 
ing cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth 
century (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the beginning of this league. 1 
Separate alliance between Lubeck and Hamburg. 

In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and 
great power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was 
commonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- 
tending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many 
inland cities (e. g. Magdeburg, Berlin, Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. 
Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land 
routes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- 
quirement and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. 
Capital of the league : Lubeck. Division of the league into three, 
afterwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, 
Dantzig • 2. Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, Pom- 
merania, and the Marches ; chief town, Lubeck; 3. Saxon ; chief town, 
Brunswick ; 4. Westphclian • chief town, Cologne. Principal trading 
ground, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : Novgorod, 
Stockholm, Wisby (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, London. Ships of 
war {Orlogschiffe). 

1361. War with Waldemar IV., king of Denmark, under the conduct 
of the burghermaster of Lubeck, John Wittenborg, who captured 
and plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before Hel- 
singborg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Liibeck. 
1367-1370. Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to 
fly. Copenhagen, Helsingor, and other cities conquered. A 
glorious and advantageous peace for the Hansa, concluded at StraU 
sund, ended the war. 

The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the 
thirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter 
enforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more 
than seventy cities, not all upon the Rhine (e. g. Bremen, Regensburg, 
Nuremberg) ; both temporal and spiritual princes joined the league. 

The Swabian city league concluded in 1376, particularly as a de- 
fense against the counts of Wurtemberg. Eberhard the Greiner (i. e. 
Quarreler), also called Rauschebart. (Uhland's ballads.) 

1 Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this name had long 
existed, the oldest being in London. 



250 Mediceval History. A. D. 

Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle 
nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franconia, and 
on the Rhine, to maintain their independence against the cities on the 
one hand and against the higher nobility, the princes of the empire, who 
were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. 
The princes of the empire were either spiritual {archbishops, three of 
whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular (dukes, counts- 
palatine, margraves, burggraves). The following associations of nobles 
deserve mention : the Martinsvogel (named after the day of their 
union), the Schlegler, the Lbwenbund. 

1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. 
Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victory of the Swabian league 

(Ulm, the capital) over Ulrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league 
recognized by the emperor. 

1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among 
his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia (Lux- 
emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- 
burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokop 
and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had 
already fallen upon 

1378-1400. Wenzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 

1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- 
wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- 
eracy. 
1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- 
berger Stallung (Stallung = preserve of game, etc.), for four 
years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to 
Bohemia. 

Leopold of Austria, 'who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- 
ceived the western lands, attacked the Swiss confederacy in alliance 
with the south German nobility. In the 

1386. Battle of Sempach (Arnold von WinJcelried?), 1 he 
was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold, 
renewed the war and was defeated in the 

1388. Battle of Nafels, by the men of Glarus and Schwyz. The 

war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner 
defeated the Swabian cities at Dbffingen, where his son Ulrich 
fell. Rupert, count Palatine, defeated the Rhine towns at 
Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the 
princes over the cities. 

1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at 

the council of the princes at Eger. 
Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, 
and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- 
posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 
1419 as king of Bohemia. 

1 See O. Kleissner, die Quellen zur Sempacher Schlacht und die Winkelried- 
sage, 1873. 



A. d. Germany. 251 

1400-1410. Rupert, Count Palatine, 

who was barely able to make the royal authority respected 
within his own party. 

1401. Unsuccessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- 
feated at Brescia by John Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had 
appointed hereditary duke of Milan (1395). 

1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. 252) in Prague 
and a change in the university statutes, all Germans, profes- 
sors and students alike (5000 in number), left the university 
of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Frederic the Warlike of 
Meissen founded a university. 
The council of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory 

XII., against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander V. as a third 

Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 

1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, 

in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of 
Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. 
Sigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County 
Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast through his 
plenipotentiary Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. The other princes 
elected Jobst of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillful management of his 
plenipotentiary, and the recognition of the successor of Alexander V., 
John XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a 
second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and 
Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by 
Naples, to summon an cscumenical council in German territory. 

1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). 

At once a council of the empire and, in a certain way, a Euro- 
pean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- 
wards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- 
bishops and bishops), and by numerous princes with imposing trains, 
so that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. 

The council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (causa 
fidei). 2. Healing of the schism (causa unionis). 3. Reformation of 
the church (causa reformations). 1 

The party of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting 
by nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common 
vote. Pope John XXIII., who appeared in person, was first nuhieed 
to public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaffhausen with the 
help of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was 
forced to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the 
University of Paris, the* council proclaimed its superiority over the^ 
Pope, but proceeded to take up the causa fidei next. Condemnation 
of the doctrine of the Englishman Wiclif (1327-1384) (opposition 
to confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- 
sionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of 
Czechish descent, born at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1409, rec- 

1 Cf. Hubler, die Konstanzer Reformation, 1867. 



252 Mediaval History. A. d. 

tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- 
lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- 
stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 
1416). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken 
up. John XXIII. was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. 
Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. 
During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- 
ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was 
deposed by the council. 

It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- 
form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a 
new Pope ; the Ultramontanes (i. e. the Italians'), reinforced by the 
Spaniards as a fifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate 
election, so that the reform fell through. Martin V. elected Pope, 
Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de fienda reformatione post 
electionem), dissolved the council 1418, as an agreement could not be 
reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- 
mans, the English, and the Romans, brought about no real abolition 
of abuses. 

At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of 
Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the 
office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the important services he 
had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere- 
mony of investiture took place in 141 7. x 

1423. After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- 
vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave 
of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Saxony (Witten- 
berg). 

1419-1436. Hussite War. 

Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of 
Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because 
they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine (sub 
utraque specie), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to 
spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- 
volt in Prague. Ziska leader of the Hussites. After the death of king 
Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He 
was crowned in Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. 
The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia 
(1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) at Deutsch-Brod. 
The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- 
powder and clumsy cannon ; ramparts of wagons). The coun- 
cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- 
sites (Calixtinians), (compact of Prague 1433) ; the Taborites, whose 
.leaders (the two ProJcops) fell in battle, were defeated and annihilated 
at Bohmisch-Brod (1434). 
1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of 

Westphalia ( Vehmgerichte) . 

1 The mortgaging the mark for a sum of money was only a form. There 
was no sale, only a "remunerative present." Cf. Riedel, Cresch. des Preuss. 
Konigshauses, II. 269. 



A. d. Germany. 253 

1438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. 

1438-1439. Albert II., son-in-law of Sigismund, whom he succeded 
in Bohemia and Hungary as well, died after returning from an 
expedition against the Turks. 

1440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.), 1 cousin of Albert, 

the last emperor who was crowned in Rome (1452). He was 
powerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war 
with his brothers. 

JEneas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius II.), his adviser. 
Civil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). 
The troops of Zurich defeated by the confederates. Zurich besieged. 
At the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Dauphin 
(afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, 
against Basel, to raise the siege of Zurich. Heroic death of 1600 
Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since 
their victory at Ragaz (1446) over the German troops, the Swiss con- 
federacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Hun- 
gary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. 

The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) 
were abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope 
Eugenius IV. (1446). 

About 1450 John Gutenberg 2 practised (at Mainz) the art of 
printing. (Johann Fust, Peter Schbjfer). 

Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his 
brother and his cousin, besieged by them in Vienna, and released by 
George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1462). 

The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, 
daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (f 1477), 
caused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), 
with the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded in 
keeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- 
duke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgundy (la Bourgogne, capital 
Dijon), fell to France. 

Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of 
Hungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only 
after the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction 
of a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had 
acquired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession 
of all the Austrian lands. (Seep. 800.) 

1 If Frederic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of Ludwig of Bavaria, be 
counted, he was Frederic IV. 

2 His family name was Gensfteisch ; the name Gutenberg was that of his 
mother's patrician family. The claim brought forward in the Netherlands that 
Lorenz Jansson ( Coster) i in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has 
been proved by Van der Linde to rest upon a forgery. His investigations 
assign Fust and especially Schoffer a much less important position than haa 
been commonly attributed to them. 



254 Mediceval History. A. d. 

§ 2. FRANCE. (See p. 227.) 

1270-1285. Philip III., le Hardi, the Rash. A quiet reign whose 
troubles were mostly from outside. Sicilian Vespers (p. 226). 
Philip married his son, 
1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heiress of 
Navarre. 
Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) 
Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics 
were removed in 1287 ; in 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French 
parliament was a court, not a legislature). 

Agreement between Philip and Edward I., of England, Edward 
renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 
10,000 livres and a guarantee of non-forfeiture for the rest of his 
French fiefs. 

1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of 
La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the 
court of his suzerain, sent instead his brother, earl of Lancas- 
ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as security for a satis- 
factory arrangement. Pliilip, hereupon, declared Edward's 
fiefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 
1294-1297. War between France and England, carried on in Gas- 
cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 
1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England 
at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re- 
garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister 
of Philip IV. (see below). 
1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated 
in the king's need of money, owing to the growing central- 
ization of government, which led him to tax ecclesiastical property. 
Bull, " Clericis laicos," forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular 
government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by 
an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from 
the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme 
positions the princes gradually retreated until a reconciliation was 
patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between 
Philip and Edward, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, 
which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage 
treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and 
his son, Edward (II.) to Philip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- 
nexed to France. 

The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh in 

1301. The bull " Ausculta fill," wherein the Pope asserted his su- 
premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance 
of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). 

Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally 
defeated by Flemish citizens in the 

1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai {Day of the Spurs). 

Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. So 
many fiefs were vacated that Pliilip saw the royal power considera- 
bly strengthened. 



A. D. France. 255 

Publication of the decretal " Unam Sanctam" (Ncv. 18, 1302) 
claiming the supremacy of the spiritual power over the temporal ; 
this was followed by a threat of excommunication. In France the 
last bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On 
Sept. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anagni by the king's 
adviser, Nogeret, and Sciarra Colonna, and treated with indignity. 
He was shortly released by a popular uprising, but finding Rome on 
his return in French hands, fell ill and died. 

Philip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). 

Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of 
a Frenchman as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the 
king. 

1309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 
1307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights 
on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and 
practices. By the free use of hearsay evidence and of torture, their 
condemnation was secured, and fifty-four were burned. Abolition of 
the order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, 
Jacques de Molai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexa- 
tion of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her 
claimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 
1314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his 
mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the 
true ruler. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- 
mitted to purchase their freedom. (Comme selon le droit de nature 
chacun doit naistre franc). Louis died June 5, 1316. His brother 

1316-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, 

was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On 
the death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- 
self king, and to put aside the claims of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., 
he decreed that on the basis of ancient Frankish law, 1 no female could 
succeed to the throne of France (the Salic law). 

Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by force. Attacks upon 
the lepers and the Jews. 

Acquisition of Douay, Orchies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died 
Jan. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 

1322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, 

Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter 
of Louis X., received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, 
the 

1 Lex Salica, tit. 42, 6. De terra vero salica in mulierem nulla portio transit, 
sed hoc virilis sescus acquirit. This pplies strictly to allodial possessions, and 
Hot to fiefs or to the crown. 



256 



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A. d. France. 257 

1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of 
the Capets, succeeded. 

Louis VIII., 1223-1226. 

Louis EX., St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, 

1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. 

I 



Philip IH., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 

1270-1285. ancestor of- the Bourbons. 

I 

Philip IV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev- 
1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. 

| Valois. | 



I I I I I 

Louis X., Philip V., Charles IV., Isabelle 
le Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VI., 

1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. 
| | of England, 

daughters, daughter. ] 

Edward III., John H., 

of England. le Bon, 
Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. 

queen of 1316. 

Navarre. lived seven days. 

1328-1350. Philip VI., nephew of Philip IV. 

Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regained 
somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but 
his tyranny alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- 
pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. 
Quarrel with Edward III. of England, springing out of the claim of 
the English sovereign to the French crown through his mother, Isa- 
belle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with 
Scotland. Outbreak of the 

1339-1453. Hundred years War between France and 
England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chronicler of the war.) 

Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob 
van Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). 

Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, 
obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. 
(Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward 
in Normandy (1346). 

1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. 

August 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of 
the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV. 1 

1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippd). 

1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-year-old Prince of Wales 
(the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise 
"Ichdien." 

17 



258 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

1347-1349. Black Death in France. 

Acquisition of Montpellier from James of Arragon, and of the 
Dauphine of Vienne from the last Dauphin, Humbert II. (who went 
into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of 
John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, 
and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should 
never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title 
of the heir of the French crown. 

Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition 
of the gabelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- 
ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 

1350-1364. John II., le Bon. 

Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- 
prisonment of Charles (1356). 

1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). 

Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John 
with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). 
Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- 
phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- 
flicts. 

1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Etienne 
Marcel, the provost of the traders (pre'vot des marchands), 
who entered into treasonable connection with Charles the Bad, 
king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates; abolition of abuses. 
Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshalls 
of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order 
of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- 
mittee of thirty-six. 

1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the 
Jacquerie, under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques 
Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the 
lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 

1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). 

Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- 
eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- 
nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a 
ransom. 

J.363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her 
son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- 
ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was 
given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- 
dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress 
of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of 
the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John 
to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his 
son, 

1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. 

In the war between Peter the Cruel, of Castile, and his brother, 
Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the for- 



A. d. France. 259 

mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand 
du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle 
of Najara, 1367) . In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- 
bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 
1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), 
constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions 
in France were again united with the crown of France. Death 
of the Black Prince (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. 
He was followed by his son, 

1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. 

Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of 
Bourbon, and of Berry. 
1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in 
Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De 
Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter 
of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 
1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by 
the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of 
Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the 
parties of Burgundy and Orleans (Armagnacs 1 ). 
1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- 
gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, 
overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 
1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleur, captured that city 
Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (Agincourt), he 
totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture 
of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the 
king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- 
beau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre 
of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. 

John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of 
Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy Duchdtel). 
John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consent of the queen, 
the Treaty of Troyes with the English (1420). Henry V. married 
Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of 
France. 

Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good 
(1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. 
Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter 
of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had 
declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of 
Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles 
VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his 
son, 

1422-1461. Charles VII., 

who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; 
in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 

1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, 
who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 



260 Mediaeval History. A. D. 

lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of 
Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 

1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), born in Domremy, on 
the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by 
Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the 
king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat 
(April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans (La 
Pucelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. 
Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- 
gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, 
and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen 
(1431). 

1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition 
of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the 
towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death 
of the duke of Bedford. 

1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- 
troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax to 
be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- 
tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies, 
the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 
1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune 
(Talbot inGuyenne; his death, 1453) the English lost all 
their possessions in France except Calais. 
1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. 
Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu- 
rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was 
succeeded by his son, 

1461-1483. Louis XL, 

who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of 

the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. 
Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued 

in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the 

Gallican church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France ; 

appeals to Rome forbidden). 

1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- 
demption of Amiens, Abbeville and St. Quentin from Bur- 

1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bienpublique), a conspiracy 
of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alencon, Berry, 
and the count of Charolois. Battle of MontVhery. Louis broke up 
the league by the concessions of the treaty of Conjians (restoration 
of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of 
Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- 
gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold (le Temeraire). Con- 
flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). 
Storm of Liege. 

1475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance 
with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amiens) betweeu 



A. D. 



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262 Mediaeval History. A. D. 

Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edward's 
eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. 

War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the 
duke in the 

1476. Battle of G-ranson, in the 
March 1. 

June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 

1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. 

Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as 
was likewise Anjou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction 
of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alencon, Perche, Guyenne, 
during this reign. The king's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan 
VHermite. Death of Louis XL, Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded 
by his son, 

1483-1498. Charles VIII. 

Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the 
emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the 
duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of 
the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; 
peace of Etaples with England. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne 
to Spain. 
1495. Rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples which Charles 

claimed by inheritance through his father from Charles, count 
of Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was 
soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope, 
the emperor, the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. (See p. 318.} 

§ 3. ITALY. (Seep. 226.) 

Milan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) 
under the Visconti as imperial viceroys; since 1395 as dukes. 
After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became 
for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- 
band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of 
Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). 
Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 
A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in power and influence 
throughout the period of the crusades. Participation in the so-called 
fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety- 
four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which 
lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and the 
trade with the East, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Comoro, 
1489. The republic at the height of its power in the first half of the 
fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- 
ment of the Great Council, with 450-500 members, followed by that 
of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges 
still more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the 
nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge 
Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- 
ful Council of Ten. Since 1439 the three terrible state inquisitors. 



A. d. England. 263 

Genoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East 
a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy 
(Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by 
civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- 
jected now to Milan, now to France. 

In Florence, after long civil contests, democracy and tyranny 
having ruled the city in turn since 1282, the family of Medici ac- 
quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its highest 
point of power. Giovanni de Medici, a rich banker, founder of the 
power of his family. His son, Cosimo (Cosmus), the father of his 
country (died 1464). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1492), de- 
velopment of the arts in Florence. Renovation of the sciences, 
advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire 
before the Turks. Dante Alighieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," 
born 1265, at Florence, where he played an important part in the 
political complications, banished 1302, died at Ravenna, September 14, 
1321. Francesco Petrarca, the " father of the revival of learning " 
(1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the "De- 
camerone." 

The Papal States, founded by the presents of Pipin and Charles 
the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest 
of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; 
since Innocent III. completely independent of the empire. Pope 
Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France 
(p. 254). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred 
the papal residence to Avignon. Residence of the Popes at 

1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") 

At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, papal 
senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the thirteenth century, Avignon 
in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. 

From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian 
cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to 
which number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a third, until the 
Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). 
(Great Schism, 1378-1417). 

At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of 
Queen Joan I.) ; the younger (Durazzo) until 1435 (death of Joan II.). 
(See the genealogy, p. 261.) 

Sicily, 1282-1295 united with Aragon ; 1295-1409 under a branch 
of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again united with Aragon, 
whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. 
After his death (1458), Naples, but not Sicily, descended to his natural 
son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). {Seep. 326.) 

§ 4. ENGLAND. (Seep. 235.) 

1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks. 

The great events of tins reign were the annexation of "Wales 
to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative 
reforms. 



264 Mediaeval History. A. d. 

Edward was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard 
of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached 
England and was crowned in 1274. 

During the barons' wars Wales had become practically independ- 
ent, and Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal 
submission to Edward until 
1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 

1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to 
cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for 
the rest. 
1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After 
hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec, 1282) and the cap- 
ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led 
to the complete submission of the country. (No "Massacre 
of the Bards.") 
1284. Annexation of Wales to England. After this the title 
" Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the 
crown. 

1289. Return of the king from a three years' absence in Gascony ; 
punishment of the oppressive judges. 

1290. Expulsion of the Jews 'from England (over 16,000). 

1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of 
Castile). Erection of crosses along the route by which the body 
was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- 
ton and Waltham still exist. 

1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to, be the rightful heir to 
the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king 
of Scotland. 

After the death of Alexander III. of Scotland the crown passed to 
his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward 
had betrothed his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway 
(1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish 
estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, 
Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- 
alogy.) 

1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Ports 
{Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Romney) 1 and French 

mariners resulted in a naval battle. Philip IV. of France summoned 
Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the 
negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed in 
Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his 
fiefs forfeited. 

1294. Rebellion of Madoc in Wales suppressed. 

1294. War with France followed by war with Scotland, which 

joined France. 
1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat 

1 These towns, to which Winchdsea, Rye, and Seaford were afterwards added, 
possessed peculiar privileges. They were under the care of the Warden of the 
Cinque Ports ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The 
towns were fortified under William I. 



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266 Mediceval History. A. d. 

of the Scots at Dunbar. Baliol resigned the crown and was 
imprisoned. Scotch coronation stone carried to London. Scot- 
land under an English regent. 

1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William Wallace. Defeat 
of the regent. 
Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (bull 

Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under the 

ban. 

In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to Flanders, 

The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the king 

in the 

1297. Re-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter (Conjir- 
matio chartarum) with additional articles, by which the right 
of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renounced 
(1301). 

1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At 
the 

July 22. Battle of Falkirk, 

the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal 
to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland, — ■ 
a claim which was rejected by the English lords in 1301. 

1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar- 
ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed- 
ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. Invasion of Scotland. 
Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 

1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the English. 

1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comyn, 
coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 

1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on his way to Scotland. 

Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 

1275. First statute of "Westminster : a codification of previous stat- 
utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- 
teenth of movable property. These forms of taxation, the in- 
direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were 
intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- 
ually surpassed in importance. 
Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court 
of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in- 
volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in all 
matters concerning the sovereign, and in criminal cases espe- 
cially reserved for his decision (" pleas of the crown ") ; Court 
of Common Pleas, for cases between private individuals. 
Development of the jurisdiction of: 1. the royal council (later the 
" Star Chamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief 
could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. 
This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereign 
was known as equity. 

1279. Statute of Mortmain (de religiosis), forbidding the aliena- 
tion of land to religious bodies (whereby it became free from 
feudal dues) without the permission of the king. 



A. D. England. 2G7 

1285. Statute of Winchester, regulating the militia and the pre- 
servation of public order. Conservators of the Peace (later 
called Justices of the Peace) appointed in every shire to execute 
the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westminster, 
amending the Statute of Mortmain. 

1290. Third Statute of Westminster {Quia emptores), providing that 
when land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of 
the overlord, and not of the tenant. 

1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, 
barons summoned severally by special writ ; commons sum- 
moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two 
knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two 
burghers from each borough. 

1297. De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of 
taxation without the consent of Parliament. 

1307-1327. Edward II., 

fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de 
Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite, Piers Gaveston, a 
Gascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- 
ward II. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred 
of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- 
called. 

1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 

1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the 
ordainers. Reform of abuses ; punishment of favorites ; ap- 
pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval 
of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration 
of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of 
Gaveston (1312). 

The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; 
Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a 
temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward 
marched to Scotland with 100,000 men, and in the 

1314. Battle of Bannockburn, 

June 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert 
Bruce. 

The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were 
as displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- 
ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward snowed unexpected 
energy ; at the battle of Boroughbridge, the earl of Lancaster, the 
leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 
1322). Repeal of the ordinances of 1311. After an unsuccessful 
invasion of Scotland, 

1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whose 
assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. 

Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- 
ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and 
other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of 
Bristol ; execution of the Despensers ; imprisonment of the king. 



268 Mediceval History. A. D. 

1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, 
Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was there 
murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 

1327-1377. Edward III. 

Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but 
fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 

1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. 
Treaty of Northampton, Bruce recognized as king, and feu- 
dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 

1330. Edward took the government into his own hands. Execution 
of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. 
The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in 
Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce's 
infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, 
which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles : Baliol driven over the 
border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 
1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town 
belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. 
Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage 
rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic 
party in Scotland and France. 
1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward 
claimed the French crown in right of his mother (see p. 257). 

1341. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper 
House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House 
(Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and 
the knights of shires. The process of separation had begun 
as far back as the reign of Edward I. 

The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament 
(revoked by the king in the same year). 

1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. 
Scotland henceforward independent. 

1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the 
Scots ; capture of David II. t who was retained in captivity 
until 1357. Battle of Crecy, p. 257. 

1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popula- 
tion perished. As the visitations of the plague were especially 
heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of 
wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of 
Laborers, regulating wages. In the next year (1350) laborers 
were forbidden to leave their own parish. 

1356. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting suc- 
cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 

1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French 
crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. Cession 
in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne 
Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Perigord, Bi- 
gorre, Rouergue\ Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. 

1361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching 
of John Ball. William Longland, author of Piers Plow- 
man. 



A. d. England. 269 

1369. Final visitation of the Black Death. 

1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince ; massacre of the in- 
habitants (death of the Black Prince, June 8, 1376). 

1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the 
daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title 
of king of Castile. 

Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, 
Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 

1376. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham 
and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of 
Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary 
royal council {Concilium Ordinarium). After the dissolution of 
the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to 
William of Wykeham he opposed John Wiclif (1327-1384), 
who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal 
of the crown. 

1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. 

During this reign the crime of treason was defined by the 
Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- 
hibited (1353, future Statute of Praemunire) ; Parliament acquired the 
power of impeachment ; trial by jury assumed a more modern form 
(separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- 
tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts 
of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited 
intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- 
guage and customs by English. 

1377-1399. Richard II., 

son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in 
the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster 
(John of Gaunt), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- 
gency. The war with France and Scotland requiring money, a poll- 
tax was assessed in 1379, and again in 1380. 
1381. Revolt of the peasants under John Ball and Wat Tyler; 

capture of London ; burning of the duke of Lancaster's palace, 

the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Walworth, mayor of London. 

Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing 

serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, 

however, doomed. 
Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of 

Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif 's adherents nicknamed 

Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif 's translation of the 

Bible. 
1388. Battle of Chevy Chase (Otterburne), between Lord Henry Percy 

and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. {Ballad of 

Chevy Chase). 
Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, (Robert de Vere, Michael 
de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Council under 
the duke of Gloucester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- 
ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (1388). 
In 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 



270 Mediceval History. A. d. 

1393. Statute of Praemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal 
bulls. 

1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, 
and concluded peace for 26 years. 

1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- 
peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, 
Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; 
Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- 
lingbroke, son of John of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 

1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade 
their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six 
years. 

Richard made an expedition to Ireland, where the isolation 
of the English who were settled within the conquered district, 
the so-called English Pale (Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- 
ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. 
During his absence 

1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of 
Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- 
land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the 
castle of Pontefract (murdered?). 

Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 

1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house 

of Plantagenet. 
1399-1413. Henry IV., 

under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, 
the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being 
passed over. 

1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, 
Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under Owen 
Glendower ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 

1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Hom- 
ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. 

As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he 
being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the 
crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy (Hot- 
spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely 
indebted for his throne, who induced his father, the earl of Northum- 
berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to join with himself, Glen- 
dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 

1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, 

July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and 
Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop 
of York ; execution of the conspirators. 
1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish throne, while on his way 
to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert 
III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to 
death by the king's brother, duke of Albany), and detained in Eng- 
land until 1423. 



A. D. England. 271 

1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at 

Bramham Moor ; death of the former. 
1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 

1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. 

While prince, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and 
brave. 

Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord 
Cobham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and 
a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- 
ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and burned, 1417). 
1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir 

Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 
1415-1420. War with France (p. 259). 
1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 
1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessful Scottish 

inroad (" The Foul Raid "). 

1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. 

Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VII. of France, 
and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 

1421. Third invasion of France. 

Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. 
Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whiiling* 
ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 

1422-1461. Henry VI., Windsor. 

Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament 
refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of 
Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- 
ford, who was regent in France. 
1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an 

agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 
1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. (Joan 

of Arc.) See p. 260. 
1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and 

Robert Grahame. 
1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, 

titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- 
store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- 
riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made 
a duke), whose influence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser, 
Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the 
duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- 
peachment of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea 
and put to death (1450). 
1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). 

The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Say, one 
of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while 
in hiding, was killed by Alexander I den. 

The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of 
York, grandson of the fffi son of Edward III., son of Anna Morti* 



272 MedicBval History. A. D. 

mer, heiress of the claims of the third line, who rettirned to England 
from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, 
the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he 
was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance. 

1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas ; 
defection of the Douglases to England. 

1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl of 
Shrewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the English 
possessions in France Calais alone was left in their 
hands. 

1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity of 
Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment of 
Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by 
the restoration of Somerset to power. 

The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and "Warwick, 
now took up arms against Henry and his advisers. 

1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and 
the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 

1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- 
May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) 
was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle of 
Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The 
victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him 
to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist 
leaders. York and his party attainted of treason by the Parliament 
of Coventry. 

1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed- 
ward IV.), and Warwick, in England. In the 
1460. Battle of Northampton, 

July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry ; flight 
of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York 
entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament 
decided that he should succeed Henry. 

1460. Battle of Wakefield. 

Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prince Edward. York 
fell on the field, the earl of Salisbury and the earl of 
Rutland, son of York, were killed. 

1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the 
Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl 

of March (now duke of York). 
Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. 

Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. 
The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants 
of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was 
proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 

1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house 

of Plantagenet). 
1461-1483. Edward IV. 

The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts 
of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. 



England, 



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274 MedicBval History. A. d. 

1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- 
trians. 
March 29. Battle of Towton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- 
ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lancastrians were totally 
defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). 
Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and 
Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester). In 1462 
Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two" attempts to 
retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry- 
retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the 
Lancastrians was crushed at Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham (1464). 
1464. Secret marriage of Edward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of 
Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir John 
Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred 
on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- 
wick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was 
increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the 
duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, 

S'ving him his daughter in marriage and promising him the crown, 
evolt of "William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the 
queen's father, Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- 
wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford (" Loose-coat 
Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he proclaimed War- 
wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation 
of Warwick and Margaret. 

1470. Warwick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- 
claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. 
Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was 
well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of 
Henry. 

1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. 

The Lancastrians under Warwick (the king-maker) totally 
defeated. 
May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. 

Defeat of Margaret, who was captured ; murder of her son 
Edvmrd. Henry VI. died in the Tower May 22, the day 
when Edward IV. reentered London. 
1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the duke 
of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- 
posed to be voluntary (benevolences), without consent of Parlia- 
ment, now first introduced to raise money for this invasion. The war 
was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). 
Truce for seven years ; payment of a large annual sum to England ; 
ransom of Margaret • betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest 
daughter, Elizabeth. 

1478. Trial and condemnation of Clarence for treason. He was exe- 
cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned 
in a butt of malmsey.) 
1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Foiher- 
ingay, wherein Berioick was surrendered to the English. 
As Louis XL now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin 



A. d. Spanish Peninsula. 275 

with Edward's daughter, as arranged at the treaty of Pequigny, 
Edward resolved on war, but died suddenly, April 9, 1483. 

1483. April- June. Edward V. 

Richard, duke of Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old 
king. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the 
Tower. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings. 
Gloucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- 
validity of Edward III.'s marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The 
claim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown 
(June 26). 

1483-1485. Richard III. 

The new king began his reign by a progress in the north. 
Murder of the two princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). 
The Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed 
the crown), headed an insurrection in favor of Henry, earl of 
Richmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of 
Buckingham. Return of Richmond to France without landing. 

1484. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. 

The following table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- 
ward III. : — 

Edward III. 

I 

|4 |6 

John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, 

by his 3d wife. | 

Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. 



John, Earl of Somerset. 

tr 
< 

I 



Edmund, 
Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. 



I I I 

John Margaret - Humphrey, Lord Stafford. 

Margaret 

Henry, Duke of 
Buckingham. 
Henry VII. 

In 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford Haven, 
and completely defeated Richard in the 
1485. Battle of Bosworth Field, 
Aug. 22. where Richard was slain. 

In 1471 "William Caxton, printer, established a press at West- 
minster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," 
the first book printed in England. (See p. S3S.) 

§5. SPANISH PENINSULA. (See p. 240.) 

Spain. 

The Moors in Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of 
Granada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished. 



276 Mediceval History. A. D. 

Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance with 

Morocco. 

1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with 
Castile. 

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were in- 
volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with 
the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of 
succession and civil wars. 

Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth century 
Sancho I V,, in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastardy 
the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, by 
England (victory of the Black Prince at Najara, 1367), the latter 
by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand du 
Guesclin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. 

Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily, 
which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son, 
Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV., 
curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after 
the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fer- 
dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinand 
the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made be- 
fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid 
the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. 

Portugal. 
The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and was 
succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portu- 
gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tan- 
giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of A Igarbe on the northern 
coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patron- 
age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery of 
Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Azores, 1447; 
Cape Verde Islands, 1455). {Seep. 328.} 

§ 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. 

Denmark, Norway, Sweden. {See p. 240.) 

Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christian- 
ity about 1000, these three kingdoms were united by the Union of 
Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Walde- 
mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakon 
succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). The 
crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that king- 
dom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. 

{See p. 851.) 
Russia. 

From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir 
the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were h? 
theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically were 



A. D. The North and Evst. 277 

tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- 
sia, which endured 250 years, there grew up a new grand principal- 
ity, that of Moscow, which after the devastation of Kiev by the 
Mongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), 
became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the 
Mongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan ill., 
the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Nov- 
gorod subjugated (1478). (Seep. 352.) 

Poland. 

Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in 
war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- 
tonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was 
Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great 
(1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hedwig, married the grand 
duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithu- 
ania were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. 
Conversion of Lithuania. (Seep. 352.) 

Prussia, 

Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 
218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The 
order attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (1351- 
1382) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the 
Poles at Tannenberg (1410). 

The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- 
vantageous first peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian 
nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led 
to the second peace of Thorn (1466) : West Prussia and Ermeland 
ceded to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. 

Hungary. 

Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by 
the Finnish * tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- 
ing house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke 
Geisa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 
1000). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division 
of the country into ten bishoprics ; political division into seventy-two 
counties (Gespanschaften). Formation of a powerful aristocracy 
(Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con- 
temporary of the emperor Frederic II.), after his return from a cru- 
sade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of the Hungarian 
nobility. 

After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house 
of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the 
Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland 
also. 

Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be- 

1 Vambery, Ursprung d. Maqyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin 
of this people ; they were, at all events, Turanian. — Trans. 



278 Mediceval History. A. d. 

ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438- 
1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king ; the 
latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon 
Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor 
of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). 
After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Cor- 
vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary 
was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, 
and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Aus- 
tria. (Seep. 300.) 

Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. (Seep. 2^0.) 

Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomads, 
founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, 
Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during the 
fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence 
of the sovereigns in 1365). 

The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked 
by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly called 
Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and cap- 
tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed II., 
destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of the 
Palosologi since 1261, by the 

1453. Conquest of Constantinople. 

Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in 
the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian 
literature. {See p. 853.) 

China. (See p. 2^ 

In 1403 the rebellious prince, Yen, succeeded to the throne under 
the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carry- 
ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin 
to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. 
Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1450, 
and remained a prisoner until released by a Chinese victory in 1457. 
The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (1488- 
1506) were unmarked by important events. (See p. 35^.) 

Japan. {See p. 243.} 

Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), 
whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan 
was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the 
northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the 
Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars 
between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. 

It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars 
Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged 
with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open 
communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limit- 
less as his wealth. (See p. 355.) 



m MODERN HISTORY. 



FIRST PERIOD. 

FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST- 
PHALIA (1492-1648). 

§1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. 

Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but 
which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern 
period, have played a very important part in the total change in 
society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early 
discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the 
east in the thirteenth century; hi the west at the beginning of the 
fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This invention materially advanced 
the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced 
into Europe from Asia (China, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- 
tion whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, 
Berthold Schwarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first 
used hi Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new 
class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree 
imperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvement gradually 
brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and 
thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the 
place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the 
lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more 
widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the 
assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, 
have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made 
at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 

1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon). 

For details and the further course of discovery see page 

282, etc. 
1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by 

Vasco da Gama. 
After the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the A zores had been discov- 
ered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the 
fourteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portu- 
guese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be- 



280 Modern History. A. D. 

gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to 
find the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the prog- 
ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomaeus 
Diaz reached Cabo tormentoso, called by John II., Cabo da buena 
esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Gama landed 
on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). {Martin Behaim of Nu- 
remberg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, 
which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dis- 
covery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Portu- 
gal.) 

The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), 
had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly 
across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and 
through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially the 
capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of prof- 
itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great 
importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who 
had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant 
republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerful. 
The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbus 
found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of 
a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reck- 
oned) shorter and simpler. 

The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros- 
perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a 
monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, 
after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. 

The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, 
disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop 
new political constitutions and new social conditions. 

The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the vice- 
roy Almeida (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515 ; 
see p. 353). 

1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Fer- 
dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), 
a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the 
Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in lf>21 
on one of the Philippine Islands. 

§2. AMERICA. 

It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occu- 
pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland 
(985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the conti- 
nent of America (Vinland). 1 

1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discover}' of 
America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief 
list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius 
( Malo) in the sixth century. 2. Seven Spanish bishops (714 or 734) ; Isl- 
and of Seven Cities, also called Antillia, a name afterwards transferred to the 
Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from China (458), followed by Hoei-Shin (499), 



a. d. America. 281 

986. Bjarni Herjulfson saw the coast of Vinland, but did not land. 

1001. Leif Erikson discovered Helluland, Markland, Finland, where 
he built some booths. 

1002. Thorwald Erikson coasted along Kjalarnes and died at Kros* 
sanness. 

1007-1009. Thorfinn Karlsefne, under whom a colony was established 
which remained several years in Vinland. Birth of the child 
Snorri. 
1011. Helge and Finnborge with Freydis, wife of Thorwald. The 
tragical ending of this settlement seems to have discouraged 
colonization ; yet traces of intercourse are observable for a 
long time, (1121, Bishop Erik of Greenland ; 1266, voyage of 
clergymen of Greenland to the Arctic regions ; 1255, Adelhard 
and Thorwald Helgason ; 1347, voyage of seventeen men from 
Greenland). 
The identification of the places visited and named by the Northmen 
is attended with great, perhaps insurmountable difficulties. The 
detailed exposition of Rafn (Helluland = Newfoundland or Labra- 
dor ; Markland == Nova Scotia ; Vinland = Mt. Hope Bay ; Kjal- 
arness = Cape Cod ; Krossanness = Boston Harbor) is hardly to be 
accepted ; some writers place the southern limit of discovery at the 
southern point of Newfoundland. 1 

Wherever they were made, the settlements of the Northmen in 
America were not lasting, and the remembrance of them had almost 
passed away by the fourteenth century. Although Columbus had 

discovered Fou-sang. (See Leland, Fou-sang, for arguments in favor of this 
discovery.) 4. Basques; Juan de VEstraide (about 1000). 5. Northmen 
(986). 6. Ari Marson, from Limerick in Ireland (982) discovered Huitramann 
land (White Man's Land) or Irland it Mikla (Great Ireland). South Carolina ? 
Florida? He was succeeded by Bjarni Asbrandson (999), and Gudleif Gud- 
langson (1029). 7. Arabians; Atmaghruins (in the eleventh century). 8. 
Madoc ap Gwynedd, a Welsh prince (1170). 9. Vadino and Guido Vi- 
valda (1281), Theodoro Doria and Ugolino Vivalda (1292), Venetians. 10. 
Nlcolo and Antonio Zeno (1380-90). This "discovery " involves an older 
one made by a fisherman of " Frislanda " about 1360. 11. Cortereal, 1403. 
12. Szkolny, a Polish pilot (1476). 13. Alonzo Sanchez de Helva (1484), 
the pilot who as some claim died in the house of Columbus, leaving his journal 
in the latter's hands. 14. Martin Behaim (1484). 15. Cousin and Pinzon 
from Dieppe (1487). 

This discovery of America has been assigned to still other races by disputants 
over the origin of the American Indians, among which may be mentioned : 
Egyptians, Tyrians, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Norwegians, Chinese, Iberians, 
Scythians, Tatars, Jews (the Lost Tribes), Romans, Malays; there is also the 
theory of settlement by the inhabitants of Atlantis, and of a new creation. It 
is pleasant, from a patriotic standpoint, to state that it has been recently asserted 
that Europe was originally populated from America. 

1 Three "relics" of the Northmen have been famous in their time. 1. The 
Writing Roclc on the Taunton River near Dighton, Mass. It was claimed that 
the inscription was in runes, and it has been interpreted by northern scholars to 
contain an account of the voyage of Thorfinn, but it seems at present that 
Washington's opinion of the Indian origin of the picture writing is to be ac- 
cepted as correct. 2. The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. The northern 
origin of this structure can hardly be maintained against the more probable 
theory of its construction by Gov. Benedict Arnold in the latter half of the sev- 
enteenth century. 3. The "Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part 
of the present century at Fall River, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of 
an Indian. 



282 Modern History. A. D. 

visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ; 
it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of the 
existence of a continent southwest of Iceland. 1 

Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, 
after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), born 
(1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa, of plebeian origin, a sailor from his earli- 
est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which 
name in his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu, 
(Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 
1271-1295) had described in the book Mirabilia Mundi. Starting 
from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marinus concerning 
the size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas- 
tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth too 
short by a sixth, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the 
Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal 
(after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward to 
discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the crown 
of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of his project by the 
Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about to 
offer his services at the court of France or England, when the cap- 
ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition. 2 
Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignity 
of admiral and viceroy, and one tenth of the income from the newly 
discovered lands. 

1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure from 
Palos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the 
Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on Guanahani, 8 
one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called by 
Columbus Juanna) and Hayti (Espaiiola, St. Domingo). Ship- 
wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony (Navidad) on 
that island. 

1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- 

tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by any 
Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian 
line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of that 
line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise 
between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoveries 
of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis- 
eoveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line 
was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 
1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus from 
Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. 
Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colum- 

1 See Peschel : Gesch. d. Zeitalters d. Entdechungen, 2d ed., p. 84. 

2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 2d 
ed. p. 120). 

8 The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place of 
Columbus are Cat Island, Turk's Island, Waiting's Island, Samana. The latter 
claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G. V. Fox in his 
" Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus iu the 
New World." Wash- 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) 



A. D. 



America. 283 



bus misunderstood, Canibs, whence Cannibals) and the island of Jam- 
aica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- 
tance of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Hayti (Dec. 
1493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columbus. 
1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from 
Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land (Prima Vista, 
Cape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not 
1494). They explored the coast N. to 67^° N. and S. for an uncer- 
tain distance, probably not so far as Florida, as has been claimed. 

1497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery 
of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, 
though many give it credence. 

1498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot ; doubtful re- 

sults (68° N. to 35° N. ?). 

1498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- 

covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America 
(Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the 
(pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Columbus to His- 
paniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was 
obliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- 
tlers on account of Ms foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from 
which he cannot be absolved, 1 — was accused at court. Bobadilla, sent 
out as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in 
chains to Spain (1500). Columbus was at once released upon his arri- 
val and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, 
but as viceroy was superseded by Ovando. 

1499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- 

rigo Vespucci. 

Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South 
America from 3° N. (Brazil?) to Cape Vela. This is often 
called the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, 
which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the 
continent of South America, is doubtful. 
Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated 
in two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of 
Castile in 1505, and filled the position of Royal Pilot from 1508 until 
his death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, 
particularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called 
after him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was 
Martin Waltzemuller (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, 
professor at St. Die in Lorraine (1507). The name of America spread 
at first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- 
eral use until the close of the sixteenth century. 2 

1 Peschel, 2d ed., p. 272. 

2 Humboldt, Examen critique de Phisfoire et de la geographie du nouveau 
continent ; Peschel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Entdeclcungen, cap. XIII., Abhand- 
lungen zur Erd-und Volkerhunde, 1877. Two attempts have been recently 
made to derive America from a native word : Jules Marcou, in the Atlantic 
Monthly (1875, March), and T. H. Lambert, in the Bulletin of the American 
Geographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. According to the former, America is a cor- 
ruption of the Indian name of a range of mountains in Nicaragua ; the latter 
derives it from a native name of the" empire of the Incas in Peru. The first 
dated map to bear the name " America " was that in the edition of Solinus of 
1520 by Aoianus. 



284 Modern History. A. D. 

1499, Dec-1500, Sept. Voyage of Vincent Yanez Pinzon from 

Palos. 

Discovery of CapeS. Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- 
sage of the equator. This voyage traced the South American 
coast to 8° 20' S. 

1500, April. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was 

accidentally (?) carried westward until he reached the coast of 
Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sanctce 
Cruris, and took possession of it for Portugal. 

1500. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland 

(Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the 
coast of Labrador. 

1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to 
the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of 
nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 

1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 

1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- 

lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras, Veragua, Porto 
Bello. Shipwreck at Jamaica. 
Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had 
discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveries 
were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbus, viceroy and admi- 
ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the 
hereditary title of admiral. 

De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. 
Manzanilla. Hojeda (1502), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la 
Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- 
covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and 
conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- 
ans of the West Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- 
ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- 
icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and 
Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The 
exact historical value of the D'Este map, just made public by M. Har- 
risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established 
the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape 
Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. 
1504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 
1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and 

sketched) the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
1506. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yanez Pinzon discovered Yuca- 
tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 
1508. Circumnavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- 
rence. 

Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions 
in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 

1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 

1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Ponce de Leon, governor 
(since 1510) of Porto Rico. 

1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- 
boa, who crossed the isthmus from Antigua on the Gulf of Ura- 



A. d. America. 285 

ba (Keats' sonnet). Balboa was put to death in 1514 by 

Davila, governor of Darien, Carthagena, and Uraba (Castila 

delOro). 
1515, Voyage of Juan Diaz de Solis in search of a passage to 

the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the 

banks of which river Solis was killed by the natives. 
1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. 

It is very doubtful if this voyage was made, or if made, 

what part of America was reached. 
Bartholome de Las Casas (1474-1566) went to the Indies in 1502 
with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- 
tector of the Indians. 

1517. Francis Hernandez Cordova rediscovered Yucatan (Cape Ca- 
toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants (Mayas), 
who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in 
Mexico. 

1518. Juan de Grijalva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought 

back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. 
Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- 
plored. 

1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, 

coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 

1519-1521- Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez 

(1485-1547), 

whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the 
command of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen 
cross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez 
sailed against the will of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). 
Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations with Monte- 
zuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, 
elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report 
to king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- 
dation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alliance with the Tlascalans. 
Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Montecuh- 
cuma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the 
king in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez 
whom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and 
strengthening his army with the soldiers of his opponent, returned 
to Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the 
temple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who 
were indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, 
leaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the 
causeways through the lake and suffered terrible loss (Noche triste). 
Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near 
Otompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest 
of Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels 
which were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, 
Cortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- 
panied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city 
was taken. Capture of the king Guatemozin, who was tortured and 



286 Modern History. A. D. 

finally executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov- 
ernor of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted 
to the chief command of the military forces. Prosecuting the search 
for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- 
turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 
1520. Nov. 7-Nov. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by 

Magalhaes, see p. 280. 
1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of Lucas 
Vasquez d'Ayllon, exploration of the east coast of North 
America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena, "Chicora." 
1522. Discovery of the Bermudas. 

1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service 
of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which gives 
the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer 
the discovery of the east coast of North Ameriea from 34° 
(39°) N. to 50° N. It has been thought that many places 
mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has 
been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its 
acceptance (?). 

1524. Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- 
tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, which 
should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; 
after a stormy session the council separated without reaching 
an agreement. 

1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro 
(1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- 
dom, of which he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284), 
in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego de 
Almagro, and Hernando de Luque. Repulse of Pizarro and 
Almagro. 

1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of 

North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 

1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- 

ploration of the Rio de la Plata, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay. 
The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since 
the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- 
main to show that the New World was not entirely neglected. 

1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned 

by way of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine 
(Norumbega). 

1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Florida, 

under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and 
the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- 
vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the 
survivors, four, one of whom was Cabeca de Vaca, made their 
way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). 
1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and 
Maracapana ; presented to the family of Welser by Charles V. 

1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 

The undertaking was favored by a civil war which was raging 



A. d. America. 287 

at the time in the empire of the Incas. Foundation of St. Michael 
on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before his 
army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was 
put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito. 
Occupation of Lima, the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between 
the Spanish leaders. Almagro defeated (1538) and executed by 
Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The 
Spanish crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 

1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French sailor, from St. 
Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland (May 
10), Prince Edward's Island, Miramichi Bay, Anticosti, coast 
to 50° N. 

1535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of 

the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), 
as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about 
the great lakes. 

Foundation of the modern city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion 
of Chili by Almagro. 

1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. 

1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S. by 

Valdivia. 

1539. May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinando de Soto, gover- 

nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and 
over 900 men. After toilsome marches in Florida, with no result but 
disappointment, De Soto led his men westward k> the Mississippi, 
where he died (at the juncture of this stream and the Guacoya) and 
was buried in the stream. The remains of the expedition (311 men) 
reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto 
reached 30° 40' N. in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the 
Ohio (38° N.) 
1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan 

to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South 

America. 

1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies 
(Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 
36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California, pre- 
viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. 
Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it 
was an island spread anew and late into the next century the 
best maps of America contained this error. 

1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by 
the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of 
Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived 
extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado 
reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui canon of the 
Colorado. Reports of a city, Quivira. Coronado wintered at 
Zuni among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- 
east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). 

1540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, with five ships. 
Roberval (Jean Francois de la Roche, lord of Roberval), ap- 
pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countries 



288 Modern History. A. D. 

north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take part in this voyage. 
Cartier founded the fortress of Charlesburg and explored the 
St. Lawrence. 

1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- 
plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- 
cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and 
down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 
1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the 
Napo. 

1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, 

against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- 
val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- 
terprise was soon abandoned. 
Rodriguez de Cabrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- 
dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of 
North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 

1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 

1547. Pedro de Gasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacifica- 
tion of the country. 

1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 

1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 

Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). 

1555-1560. First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a 
Protestant settlement in America. The chevalier Nicolaus 
Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a 
colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen 
missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- 
olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- 
tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur- 
dered by the Portuguese (1558), and in 1560 the colony was 
entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Andre 
Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France 
coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos 
(Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a 
gossipy, untrustworthy book. 

1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana • no settlement made. 

1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of 
the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search 
of El Dorado in South America. 

1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a 
Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Ribault. 
Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. 
The settlement was soon abandoned. 

1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John 

Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West 
Indies. 

1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony 

in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's 
colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. 
John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1565, Aug. 
28). 



A. IX America. 289 

1565, Sept. 20. Storm of Fort Carolina by the Spaniards under 
Menendez de Aviles ; massacre of the garrison ("I do this 
not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans "). Ribault, having 
put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with many of his 
company. Construction of three Spanish forts (Castle of St. 
Augustine). 
1568. Expedition of Dominique de G-ourges to avenge the mas- 
April, sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- 
tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison (" I do this 
not as to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, rob- 
tjers and murderers"). 
1572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack 
upon Nombre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 

1576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest 
June-Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher's Strait and Meta In- 
cognita on the north coast of North America (60°).. Supposed 
discovery of gold. 

1577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 

1578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 

1577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the 

world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- 
covered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 
42° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 

1578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- 
der a patent from queen Elizabeth. 

1583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at New- 
foundland he took formal possession of the island for England 
in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 

1584. Sir Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the 
patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- 
patched Amidas and Barlow to explore the coast of North 
America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on 

July 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country 
for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the 
explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received 
the name of Virginia. 

1585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville 

sent to Roanoke Island ; suffering from destitution they were re- 
moved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies immedi- 
ately after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they 
had, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new 
colonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governor, John White. 
Virginia Dare, first English child born in America. This colony 
met an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could 
not find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 
1585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of 
Davis Straits to 66° 40'. Discovery of Gilbert Sound and 
Cumberland Straits. 
19 



290 Modem History. A. d. 

1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West 

Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena. Rescue of the 
colony of Virginia. 

1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 

1586). He reached 72° 12' N. and discovered the Cumber- 
land Islands, London Coast, Burnley' s Inlet (Frobisher's Strait 1 ). 

1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west 
coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianos, a 
Greek, who had been in the service of Spain under the name 
of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel (Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) 
regards the story as apocryphal. 

1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of 
the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up 
the Orinoco for 400 miles. 

1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death 
of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 

1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France 
a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on 
the Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- 
turned to France. After his death his patent was granted to 
Chauvin, who made two successful voyages to Tadoussac, and 
left some people there (1600). 

1602. Voyage of Bartholemew Gosnold from Falmouth. Taking due 

westerly course he first saw land in 42° N. Discovery of a 
cape which Gosnold named Cape Cod (May 15). Discovery 
of Buzzard 's Bay (called GosnoWs Hope). Erection of a fort 
and storehouse on Cuttyhunk (called by Gosnold Elizabeth 
Island, a name now applied to the whole chain of islands of 
which this is the most westerly). Return of the whole party 
to England. 

1603. Voyage of Martin Pring from Bristol along the coast of Maine 

from the Penobscot River to the Bay of Massachusetts. 

1603. Voyage of Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, from Brouage, up 

the St. Lawrence. 

1604. Foundation of Port Royal (the present Annapolis) 
in Nova Scotia by the French. 

In 1603 Pierre du Gast, Sieur de Monts, obtained from Henry 
IV. of France a grant of all lands in North America from 40° N. to 
46° N. (from Pennsylvania to New Brunswick), under the name of 
Acadia. (This name was afterwards restricted to the present New 
Brunswick, and the French possessions in N. America were designated 
generally as New France.) In 1604 De Monts associated himself 
with M. Poutrincourt and sailed for America with two vessels. 
Foundation of Port Royal by Poutrincourt. Discovery of the 
St. John River by Champlain, De Monts' pilot. De Monts built a fort 
at St. Croix, but in the following year joined Poutrincourt at Port 
Royal. 

1 See Peschel, Gesch. d. ErdJcunde, I. 299, for a discussion of the errors of 
ttie early Arctic navigators. 



A. i>. America. 291 

1605. Voyage of George Weymouth (who had made a trip to Labrador in 

1602) to the coast of Maine. Santa Fd in New Mexico founded. 
Over a hundred years had elapsed since the discovery of America, 
and thus far South America and Central America had alone been the 
scene of active and successful colonization. In North America, a 
few scattered Spanish settlements in the south and one French 
colony in the north were the only representatives of European civiliza- 
tion. The next few years witnessed a mighty change. England, 
which for all her voyages had not a foot of land in America, entered on 
a course of settlement and conquest which ultimately gave her the 
fairest portion of the New World. 

English, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies in North 
America (1606-1638). 

A. English Colonies. 

1606. April 10. The patent of Sir Walter Raleigh becoming void by 
his attainder for treason, James I. issued a patent dividing 

Virginia into two parts : 1. The First Colony, embracing the 
country from 34° N. to 38° N. with the right to settle as far as 41° N. 
if they were the first to found their colony : this southern colony was 
granted to a number of gentlemen, residing principally in London 
(Richard Hakluyt), and known as the London Company. 2. The 
Second Colony, embracing the country between 41° N. and 45° N. 
with the right of settling as far as 38° N. if they were the first to 
establish their colony ; this northern colony was granted to gentle- 
men residing chiefly in Bristol, Plymouth, etc., and hence known as the 
Plymouth Company. Each company was to become owner of the 
land for fifty miles on each side of the first settlement, and one hun- 
dred miles inland. The nearest settlements of the two colonies 
should be one hundred miles apart. The government of each colony 
was vested in a council resident in England and nominated by the 
king ; the local government was intrusted to a council resident 
in America also nominated by the king, and to conform to his 
regulations. Imports from England free of duty for seven years ; 
freedom of trade with other nations, the duties for twenty-seven 
years to go to the colonies. Right of coinage and of self-defense. 
Establishment of a Council of Virginia in England for the superin- 
tendence of both colonies. 

Colony of South Virginia. 

1607» May 13. Foundation of Jamestown in the southern 
colony by a band of one hundred colonists sent out under 
Christopher Newport. It included Bartholomew Gosnold and 
John Smith. Dissension in the council. Explorations by John 
Smith who was captured by the Indians, and presented to the 
chief, Powhatan, but in the end released (story of the rescue 
of Smith by Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan 1 ). In 1607 

1 This story has been relegated to the realm of fable, on the insufficient 
ground that no mention of h *poears in Smith's first account of his captivity. 



292 Modern History. A. d. 

Smith explored the Chesapeake. During the first years the 
colony suffered severely from extremes of heat and cold, as 
well as from dissensions and bad provision by the company. 
Laborers were scarce, the colonists being either gentlemen or 
criminals. 

1609. Second charter of the company of South Virginia, increase of 
privileges and of members. Lord Delaware {Thomas West) 
appointed governor for life. Smith returned to England. 

1610. The distress in the colony was so great (The Starving Time) 
that it was on the point of abandonment when Lord Dela- 
ware arrived with supplies. 

1611. Delaware returning to England, Sir Thomas Gates was sent out 
as deputy governor. 

1612. Third charter of the company of South Virginia. Inclusion 
of the Bermudas within their possessions. 

1613. The French having established the colony of St. Saviour at 
Mount Desert on the coast of Maine, the governor of South 
Virginia sent Samuel Argal to dispossess them. Argal de- 
stroyed St. Saviour and razed Port Royal. On his return he 
received the submission of the Dutch settlement at Hudson's 
River (?). 

1614. Sir Thomas Dale deputy governor of South Virginia. 

1615. Land, which had hitherto been held of the company by farmers 

as tenants-at-will, was now made private property ; fifty acres 
being now granted to every colonist and his heirs. 

1617. Samuel Argal succeeded Sir George Yeardley as deputy gover- 
nor of South Virginia ; reduced state of the colony. In the 

1618. following year Lord Delaware sailed with supplies and colonists 
for Virginia, but died on the voyage. Rigorous government 
of Argal. At this time there were 600 persons and 300 
cattle in the colony ; the only exports were tobacco and sassa- 
fras, and the London company was indebted £5,000. 

1619. First General Assembly in South Virginia convoked 
(June 19) by Sir George Yeardley, governor general, con- 
sisting of the burgesses of the colony, representing eleven " bo- 
roughs " or plantations. The burgesses sat with the council 
and governor. 

Introduction of negro slaves (20) into Virginia by a Dutch 
vessel. 

1620. The colony, numbering 1000 persons, received an accession 
of 1200 new settlers. Introduction of women who were sold 
as wives to the colonists for from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. 
Free trade with the colony established. 

1621. Sir Francis Wyatt, governor, brought over a new constitution for 
the colony, whereby its government was vested in a governor, 
a council of state, and a general assembly, to which two bur- 
gesses were to be chosen by every town, hundred, and planta- 
tion. The governor had the veto power, and every enact- 
ment of the colonial legislature required the ratification of 
the company in England to become binding. All ordinances 
of the company were without effect unless accepted by the 
assembly. 



A., d. America. 293 

1622. March 22. Massacre of 347 colonists by the Indians. 

1624. Commission of inquiry into the affairs of Virginia appointed 
by the crown. In spite of the answer of the general assembly 
wherein the rights of the people were denned, the court of 
king's bench in England, before which the cause was tried, de- 
cided against the company. The charter was annulled. The 
company had sent out more than 9000 persons to the colony, 
of whom not more than 2000 now remained. Sir Francis 
Wyatt was appointed governor, with a council of eleven mem- 
bers appointed by the king. This plan of government was 
continued by Charles I., who announced that the colony should 
immediately depend upon the crown, which should appoint the 
governor and council and issue patents and legal processes. 
Commercial restrictions. 

1630. Grant of Carolana (the region south of the Virginia colony be- 
tween 31° N. and 3b° N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first 
instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement 
seems to have been made, on which account the grant was 
subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted 
out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted 
in much ill-feeling. 

1632. Grant of Maryland (the region between the Potomac 
and 41° N.) to Cecil Calvert, the second lord Baltimore, son 
of Sir George Calvert, to whom the grant was originally 
made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was 
met by a protest from Virginia which was of no avail. In 

1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred 
persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- 
vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- 
tion of religious establishment appeared in the charter beyond 
the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- 
mon law. 
The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the crown, 
was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- 
uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- 
tion, and received the taxes. The general assembly of the 
colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- 
ing non-approval. 

1636. Grant of New Albion (including New Jersey) from the vice- 
roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden. This New Albion, 
which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract 
of like name discovered by Drake on the western coast of 
America (p. 289). 

The Plymouth Company. 

Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- 
patched two explorers to the region of their grant (Challons, Hanam), 
and in 

1607, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the 



294 Modem History. A. r>. 

northern colony. They built Fort St. George on Parker's " Isl- 
and" (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 
Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sir 
John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists 
that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- 
ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a 
claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within 
the territory of the Plymouth Company. 
1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith 
from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- 
count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, 
to which the name of New England was given. Trouble 
with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, 
who carried off twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for 
slaves, discouraged settlement. 
After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 
1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself made no more 
attempts at settlements, and the colonies that grew up in its territories 
were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- 
dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- 
deed, was made without any authority from the company. In 1620 
the company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New 
England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. to 
48° N. across the continent). 

1620. Settlement of Plymouth in New England by 
English separatists from Holland. 
This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of 
Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance 
with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland 
(1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- 
inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London 
company (South Virginia), and a promise of toleration from the 
king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the 
latter. Procuring two ships {Speedwell, May/lower), a part of the con- 
gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- 
ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson's River. Twice 
driven back by stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much 
earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the 
Mayflower, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead 
of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the 
late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor 
at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- 
ment (they being beyond the limits of the London Company), and 
elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the 
coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first 
European child born in New England). Toward the close of De- 
cember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the 
erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- 
teen families, 102 individuals). 1 

1 The date is disputed ; that of the landing of the whole body can hardly h* 



A. d. America. 295 

1621. Intercourse of the colonists (Capt. Miles Standish) with the In- 
dians (Samoset, Massasoit, chief of the Indians in that vicin- 
ity). Upon the death of Carver, William Bradford was 
elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymouth 
Company, also made out in the name of the London merchants, 
with whom the Pilgrims had formed a partnership before sail- 
ing. Over fifty of the original settlers died this year. 
Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. 
Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- 
celed out among various adventurers by often conflicting grants. In 
1621 Sir William Alexander obtained a patent for the whole of Aca- 
dia, under the name of Nova Scotia, from the crown of Scotland 
(confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was 
granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando 
Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the 
Merrimac and the Kennebec, which region was called at first Laconia, 
afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of 
the present Dover (Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puri- 
tans from England settled at Cape Ann; the colony afterwards' re- 
moved to Naumkeag {Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- 
ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 

1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Francis West as " Admiral of 
New England," Robert Gorges as "Governor-General," and 
William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing 
came of this assertion of authority. 

1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London 

merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. 
Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 

1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between 
three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north 
of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to 
a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists 
who joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the 
colony was changed to Salem. 

The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. 
Suppression of the settlement at Wollaston (" Merry Mount ") 
by Endicott. Morton, who after Wollaston's departure had 
ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was 
seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 
1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- 
setts Bay (" The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay 
in New England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the 
company, enlarged by new associates, which had settled Salem. The 
company was permitted to elect a governor, deputy governor, and 
eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of 
England. The first governor of the company was Matthew CradocL 

ascertained ; the landing of the first exploring party seems to have taken place 
on Dec. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (confusion here also). See Gay, " When 
3id the Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth ? " — Atlantic Monthly, November 
1881, p. 612. 



296 Modern History. A. D. 

A number of influential men soon becoming interested in the enter- 
prise, the governing council or court of the company in England 
(that is to say, " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay 
in New England") consented that the charter and government 
should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under which agree- 
ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed 
for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at 
Charlestown, where an offshoot from the Salem colony was already 
established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants 
held. 

1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was 
made to each, Mason receiving the territory between the 
Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called New- 
Hampshire. 1 Gorges received the region between the Pis- 
cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of New Somerset- 
shire. 

1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was 

assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- 
raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or 
Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- 
dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and 
governing their persons, and distributing the lands within the 
limits of the patent." 
1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shawmut by 
the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- 
ited by an episcopal minister, William Blackstone. On Sept. 
7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain 
to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at 
Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should 
elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- 
ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, 
deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by 
the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the 
freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a 
fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtown 
(afterwards Cambridge). 

Colony of Connecticut. 

The Dutch (Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the 
coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a 
fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the 
earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset River, 
and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick 
transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and 
others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on 
the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- 
setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from, 

1 The " Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 
1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is 
now generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annals, I. 199, note 2. "Win- 
throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. Fogg, Gazeteer of N. II. 



A. D. America. 297 

Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up 
a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and 
English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 

1634. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing 
the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- 
acted that whereas four courts should be held in a year, the 
whole body of freemen should be present at that court only in 
which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen 
in the towns should send deputies. 

1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of Plymouth 
to the crown in consequence of the hostility of the govern- 
ment and church. 

1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- 

sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by John 
Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who 
built a fort at Saybrook, under commission from the proprie- 
tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Newtown 
(Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- 
ford. 

1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals) established at 

Plymouth. 

1636. Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams, who had 
been expelled from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- 
trines subversive of church and state. 

1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas- 

sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequots in Connecticut. 
Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 

1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark 
and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious 
differences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards 
Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. 

Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under 
Davenport and Eaton. 

In this year another attempt was made by quo warranto pro- 
cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of 
success. 

In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- 
vard, of Charlestown, the public school which the colony had 
enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown 
received the name of Harvard College, while the name of 
the town was changed to Cambridge. 

1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to 
form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) 
placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the 
general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in 
the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All 
could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- 
stitution. 

The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by 
the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. 

A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Ply 
mouth colony met for the first time (June 4). 



298 Modern History. A. D. 

1641. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by 
the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 

1643. Creation of the United Colonies of New England by the 
alliance of Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Mas- 
sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. 

B. Dutch Settlements. 

1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted 
from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake, and entered Hudson's 
River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 

1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- 

hattan at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River (so called 
to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware). Alleged 
submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 

1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company 

in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° IS. 
to 45° N. Fort built at Manhattan, another, Fort Orange, near 
the present A Ibany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through 
Long Island sound (Block Island). 
1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place 
of the New Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 

1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for 
twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New 
Amsterdam. 

Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- 
necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New 
York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- 
pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bring 
over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title 
represented a certain relation of suzerainty between the founder and 
the colonists. 

The council for New England had opposed what it regarded as the 
Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and the remonstrances of the English 
grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627, 1632)., 
The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was 
opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested 
from them. (Protest of Kief t, governor of New Netherlands against 
the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a nourishing trade 
with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they 
supplied with firearms. 

C. Swedish Settlements. 

1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of 
Swedes and Finns. The colony was called New Sweden, 
and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered 
this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed 
led to no result until 1655, when New Sweden was annexed t« 
New Netherlands. 



ft. d. America. 299 

D. New Prance and the Arctic Region. 

It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- 
coveries of Verrazano, the whole of North America north of Spanish 
Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in 
Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the 
projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. 
It was with the French in the north that the English settlers had to 
deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as 
that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north 
the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which 
gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 
1606. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 

1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out 
by De Monts, under Champlain. 

1609. Champlain, joining a war party of the Algonquins against the 
Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 

1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry Hudson, who was 

searching for the northwest passage, in the service of an 
English company. On the return the crew mutinied and 
Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of 
again. 
1610. English colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- 
ception Bay). 

1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Passage. 

Discovery of New South Wales and New North Wales, Button's 
Bay. 

1613. Madame de Guercheville, having secured the surrender of De 

Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown 
for all New France between Florida and the St. Lawrence 
(except Port Royal), sent Saussage with two Jesuits, who took 
possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (St. Saviour) 
on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by Ar gal's 
expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements in 
Acadia were also destroyed. 

1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Huron. 

1616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- 

sage. Discovery of Wolstenholme's Sound, Lancaster Sound, 
Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 

1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir 
William Alexander by the crown of Scotland. An attempt at 
settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- 
session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Cal- 
vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 

1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- 
dred associates under Cardinal Richelieu. 

1629. Conquest of Quebec by Louis and Thomas Kertk, under a 
commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. 
An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by 
Champlain. 



300 Modern History. A. d. 

1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William 
Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the 
colony should remain subject to Scotland. 

1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. 

Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30' to 
55° 10' in vain, but discovered Fox's Channel and reached Cape 
Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a 
terrible winter. 

1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- 
sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 

1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the 
Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel 
against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death 
of Champlain. 

1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he 
brought over several families and took possession of the 
island. {See p. 357.) 

§ 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMA- 
TION. (See p. 258.) 

1493-1519. Maximilian I., 

who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect." 
1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- 
ber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, 
after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment 
of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- 
friedenskreise): Circle of : 1. Austria ; 2. Bavaria • 3. Swabia; 4. Fran- 
conia; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower 
Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy 
(1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. 
Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- 
lenburg, etc.) ; 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- 
ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive 
of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, 
Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already 
completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. 

Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control 
of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part 
of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. 

Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milan. 
1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XII., Pope 
Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi- 
milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but 
besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from the 
league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League 
(1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by 
Maximilian (p. 319). 

The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house cf 
Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line. 



A. D, Germany. — Reformation. 301 



Maximilian I. y - Mary, Ferdinand, 

emperor, f 1519. 



Isabella, 



of Burgundy. king of Aragon, queen of Castile, 

t 1482. f 1516. + 1504. 

d. of Charles 
the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy. 
Philip the Fair, ==rr====r Joanna the Insane 



archduke of Austria, 
t 1506. 

SPANISH. 



queen of Aragon and Castile, 
t 1555. 

GERMAN. 



Charles I. (V.), f 1558. Ferdinand I., 1 1564. 

m. Isabella of Portugal. m. Anna of Hungary. 

Philip II., king of Spain, Maximilian II., 

f 1598. emperor, f 1576. 

Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand 
(king of Aragon and Naples} and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence 
heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- 
self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- 
gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the 
Hapsburgs (Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinihia, 
Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest 
son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of 
the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of 
the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, 
sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife 
was Mary, Ferdinand's sister). 1 

1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. 

Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, 
became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine 
monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 
sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of 
theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court 
church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of 
absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 

1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by Zwingli at 
Zurich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. 

Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaeta (Cajetanus), 
Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the 
Pope. 2 

Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion 
at Leipzig 1519 (Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter 
secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 

1 These fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the 
following couplet : 

Bella gerant alii, tufelix Austria, nube ! 
Quas dat Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus. 
2 De Papa male informato ad Papam melius informandum. 



302 Modern History. A. D. 

Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon 
he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in 
spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson 
of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor. 

1519-1556. Charles V. 

' He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- 
pose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther 
defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The 
ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to 
the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. 
The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- 
tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to 
Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- 
man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse 
(1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by 
the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany 
and was occupied with the war with Francis I. 

Franz von Sickingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- 
tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed 
against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in 
vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the 
country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 

1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- 
companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The 
peasants defeated at Konigshof en on the Tauber and cruelly punished. 
Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas Miinzer captured at Franken- 
hausen and executed. 

Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg 
duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship. 

Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- 
chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- 
cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- 
ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 
1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two 
dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to 
oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of 
Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, 
Philip of Hesse, Liineburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- 
cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine 
(1526). 
1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. 

Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. 
Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under 
Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza 
(1522). The French Connetable, Charles of Bourbon, transferred his 
allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 
1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans 
reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern 
France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. 



A. D. Germany Reformation. 303 

1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 

1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, 
Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders 

and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and 

gave his sons as hostages, 

1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., who 

had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were 
extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Fran- 
cis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. 'The 
imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under tho 
constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- 
venuto Cellini?); the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). 
The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa 
(Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and 
the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to 
raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 
1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the 

fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's 
aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis. 
Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, 
Flanders and Artois ; Charles promised not to press his claims upon 
Burgundy for the present, and released the French princes. 

1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious 
position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took 

a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms 
(p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against 
this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 
1526-1532. War with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, 
having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose 
Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter 
was assisted by the Sultan Soliman {Suleiman), who besieged Vienna 
in vain (1529). 

1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was 
the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 

1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- 
son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- 

sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schwarzerd, 1497-1560), 
the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet commanded 
the abolition of all innovations. 

1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- 
Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. 

Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Borne, 
and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against 
this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of 
the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 

1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was 
revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the 

Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a 
year. 



304 Modern History. A. d. 

Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. 
A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman 
retired. 

1534-1535. Anabaptists in Minister (Johann Bockelsohn, from Ley- 
den). 

1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, 
Ulrich of Wiirtemberg, who had been driven out (1519) by 
the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- 
dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to 
a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wiirtemberg, but 
should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical 
party. 

1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the 
pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 

1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about 
Milan ; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy 
after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles in- 
vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into 
Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who 
pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. 
The war was ended by the 

1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- 
June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. 

July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 

1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- 
ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with 
special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- 
leges. 

1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Jgnatius Loyola (1534), 
approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread 
of the Reformation. 

1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- 
vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his 

eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and 
Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- 
tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from 
France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christians relig- 
ionis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- 
wards head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the 
Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 

1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 

1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, driven from the 
country by the Schmalkaldic League. 

1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa- 
sioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. 
The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, 
were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served 
as a pretext. 



A. d. Germany. — Reformation. 305 

Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Cleve. The allied 
Turkish and French fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, 
in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of 
Cleve, and advanced as far as Soisso?is. Soliman invaded Hungary 
and Austria. 

1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, 
Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive 
Milan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the 
possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, 
as a fief. Francis gave up his claims to Naples, and the overlordship 
of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 
1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. 
Reforms hi the church. Establishment of a number of dog- 
mas of the Catholic church. 

1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. 

Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unhindered 
by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of 
the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the 
church, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- 
ance with him, and promised money and troops. 

1546-1547. Schmalkaldic War. 

The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic, 
elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the 
ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the 
emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- 
many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- 
eral Schdrtlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and finally re- 
tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered 
his electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced 
the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- 
berg, Ulm, duke of Wurtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to 
Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 

1547. Battle of Miihlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Torgau the 
24 April, elector of Saxony, captured him, and besieged his capital, 

Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- 
burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine 
line (duke Maurice). The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, 
Eisenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of 
Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although Maurice 
and Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his 
liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by 
the Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, 
placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- 
cution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and 
1552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of 
Friedevjalde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced him 
to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude 
the 
1552. Convention of Passau. Free exercise of religion for the 
20 



506 Modern History. A. D t 

Aug. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet. 
Maurice defeated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach 
at Sievershausen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 

1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. 
Sept. 25. 

The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, 
acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- 
ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories 
(jus reformandi), and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No 
agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation that 
bishops and abbots who became Protestant should lose their offices 
and incomes ; but this provision was inserted by imperial decree. 
This peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 
1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry II., who, as the 
ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Tout, and Verdun. Charles 
besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of 
Guise. 

The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession of 
the cities which had been occupied. 

1556- Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25, 

1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). 

The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche- 
Comte, and the Netherlands, went to his son Philip; the imperial office 
and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand I. (p. 302, 303). 
Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, 
but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 

1556-1564. Ferdinand I., 

husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia and 
Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries 
by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he 
was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His son, 

1564-1576. Maximilian II., 

was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to the Protes- 
tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. 
War with Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan 
Soliman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the 
heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained 
its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumbach, who had broken the 
public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wurzburg, had plundered 
the city of Wurzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- 
eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- 
ture of Goiha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict 
confinement in Austria until his death. 

Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 

1576-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II„ 
a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer {Kepler, f 163fy 



A. D. 



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308 Modern History. A. d. 

was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of gov- 
erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306). The 
imperial city of Donauivorth, placed under the ban by the emperor, 
because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite of 
the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria, 
who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- 
tion of a 

1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatine), 

which was opposed by the 

1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria)- 
Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. 

Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cession 
of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- 
mians gave them the 

1609. Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), which permitted a free exer- 
cise of religion to the three estates of lords, knights, and 
royal cities. 
1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Julich-Cleve 
on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector 
of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the principal 
claimants. 
Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- 
dicate the government of Bohemia. 

1612-1619. Matthias, 

being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his 
brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- 
thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in strict 
Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the 
objections of the Protestant estates. 

§ 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 

1618-1648. 

The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods, 
which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- 
hemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; they 
developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic 
Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Swedish and 
Swedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the 
house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and 
France upon German soil. 

1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. 
(1618-1623.) 

Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist 2 church in the territory of the 
abbot of Braunau, and destruction of another in a city of the arch- 
bishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, which 

1 Utraquist, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. 



A. ■** Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 309 

according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as 
royal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution. 1 The irri- 
tation of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the 
transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, 
seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt 
in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thum. The governors, Mar- 
tinitz and Slawata, and the secretary, Fabricius, thrown from a win- 
dow in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the diti'h, but escaped 
with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the 
rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of 
the Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- 
grave John George of J agemdorf. The imperial forces were defeated 
by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. 

Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the 
most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made 
rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival 
of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, 
who arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to 
retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia. 2 Ferdinand 
went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six 
electors. 

1619-1637. Ferdinand II. 

Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of 
Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head 
of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James L, 
king of England. (" The Winter King ") . 

Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- 
len Gator, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an 
inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. 

Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head 
of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- 
due the Austrian estates, with Spain {Spinola invaded the county 
palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- 
cured), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated 
Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the 
League commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the 
imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 

1620, Nov. 8. Battle on the White Hill 

over the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris- 
tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- 
cated ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John 
George of Brandenburg-Jagerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- 
jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- 
ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. 
Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- 
lence, in Silesia. 

Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 

1 Cf. Gindely, Gesch. d. dreissigja.hr. Kriegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. 2. 

2 Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 



310 Modern History. A. D. 

to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by 
Maximilian's general, Tilly (Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, born 1559, 
in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under 
Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mans/eld (April, 1622), de- 
feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and 
Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra- 
tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June, 1622), and again 
at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). 

1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic 
V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the 
present in pledge. 

2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony. 
1625-1629. 

Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head 
of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. 

Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an 
utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 
prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial 
commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi* 
sioned by a system of robbery. 

Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626) 
pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined 
Beihlen Gabor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian 
of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. 

Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Bruns- 
wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). 
Wallenstein alone conquered Schlesioig and Jutland, drove the dukes 
of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to 
submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- 
fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 

1629. Peace of Liibeck 

May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- 
ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German 
affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- 
der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 

1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution : 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias- 
tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had 
been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. 
This affected two archbishoprics : Magdeburg and Bremen j twelve bis- 
hoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen, 
Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- 
session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and 
Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 
2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free 
exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- 
ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops 
and those of the League. 



A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 311 

1630. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). 

The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallen- 
stein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- 
erful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded 
complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over 
the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. 
The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a 
large part of the army. 

1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers 
and Guastalla. The former, supported by France {Richelieu 
himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco 
(April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap* 
tured Mantua. 

3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 

1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on 
July, the coast of Pomerania. 

Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed 
Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; 
the rejection of his mediation at the peace of Liibeck ; anxiety in 
regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. 

Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, 
Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under 
Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of 
the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost 
made the Baltic a Swedish sea. 

Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu). 

Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania 
and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The 
king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege 
to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. 
Negotiations with his brother-in-law, 'George William, elector of Bran- 
denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. 
Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to 
the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- 
tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of 
armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with 
difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. 
Meanwhile 

1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted 
May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by 

the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check 
the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed 
from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- 
dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command). 1 

Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 

1 Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined 
portion of the defenders (Falhenberg). Cf. Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf 
u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874. 



312 Modern History. A. d. 

and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alli- 
ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. 
Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the 
Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 

1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. 

Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a 
bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. 

The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and 
Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wilrzburg, Hanau, Frank- 
fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. 
Winter quarters. 

Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boyt- 
zenburg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held 
fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. 

At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, 
over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, 
and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war 
and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 

1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to 
meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz 

and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He 
was seventy-three years old. 

Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- 
stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to 
the assistance of Maximilian. 
1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. 

July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for 
eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by 
Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- 
trenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced 
to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, 
Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon 
and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands 
of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus 
hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- 
hard of Saxe-Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and 
hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from Leipzig 
to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 
Swedes). 

1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- 
phus. 1 
Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle 
with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. 
The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Bernhardt Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish 
forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 

1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lau- 
enburg, is totally unfounded. 



A. d. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 313 

chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). 
League of Heilbronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper 
and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 

1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar to Franconia. He 
took Bamberg and Hbchstadt, drove back the Bavarians under 

Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from 
the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and 
Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied 
the upper Palatinate. 
Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many 

of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new 
recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, 
and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- 
tiations with Oxenstierna. 
Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein 

invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and 

then plundered Lusatia. 
Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. 

Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the 

elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter 

quarters in Bohemia. 
Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. 
The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- 
mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, 
the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the 
army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, Gallas, and Aldringer, 
at Pilsen), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with 
the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from 
the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to 
make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the 
basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the 
hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for 
the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to 
decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal 
generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredo) from 
his cause. How, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 

1634. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- 
Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief 

officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. 

Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On 
the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by 
Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the 

Feb. 25. Assassination of "Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at 
the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate 
friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had 
not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; 
but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to 
bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was 
done, he rewarded the murderers with honor and riches. 

1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, 
and Gallas and the Bavarians (John of Werth), over the Swedes 
at Nordlingen, 



314 Modern History. A. i\ 

1635. Peace of Prague, 

May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The 
elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of 
Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical 
estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- 
cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the 
possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 
1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the 
expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were 
on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- 
turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made 
against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- 
ship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates 
accepted the peace. 

4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). 

The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstierna, that of 
France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France 
fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with 
whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to 
conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of 
Franconia, which he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture 
of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his 
army. 

1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at Wittstock over the 
imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His 
son, 

1637-1657. Ferdinand III., was desirous of peace. 
The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). 
After the death of Baner (1641) Torstenson became commander- 
in-chief of the Swedes. 

1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of 
Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 

1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- 
gress agreed upon. 

1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated 
the imperialists under PiccolominL 

Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These 
Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmark,, 
Hence 

1643-1645. War between Denmark and Sweden. 

1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- 
Sept, ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Schles- 

wig, and invaded Jutland. 
Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall Gutbriant, 
had penetrated to Rottweil (Wurtemberg). Guebriant fell in battle. 
Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at 
Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werth, and 
totally defeated. 



A. d. Germany. — Thirty Years* War, 315 

1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabriick with the 
Swedes • 1644 in Miinster with the French. 

Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, 
duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed commanders- 
in-chief of the French troops. They forced the 

1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Conde captured Mann- 
heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- 
heim, Mainz, and Landau. 

Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to 
the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and 
by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 

1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenson and Konigsmark, pur- 
Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. 
March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- 

kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union 
with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the 
whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. 

May. Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran- 
conia. 

Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the 
Bavarians at Allerslieim. 
Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). 
After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his 

army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command 

on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 

1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his owd force the Swedish 
troops under Konigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at 
Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the 
elector Maximilian to conclude the 

1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, 
after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish 

successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the 
truce and joined the imperialists again. 

1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible 

ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance 
of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish 
general Konigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right 
bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite) . 

Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and 
wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- 
tion in all ranks. 

1648. Peace of Westphalia. 
Oct. 24. 

Negotiations from 1645-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count 
Trautmannsdorf and Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count 
Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and 
baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, 
secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia* 
tions. 



316 Modern History. A. D. 

Conditions of the Peace. 1 

A. Indemnifications. 

1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither 
Pomerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, 
Garz, Damm, Gollnow, Wollin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, 
formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not 
the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. 
Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 

2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship 
of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics 
and cities of Metz, Tout, and Verdun, which had been in French 
hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgi'avate of 
upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian 
house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (prsefec- 
tura provincialis decern civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- 
edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in 
Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to 
the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- 
risoning Philippsburg. 

3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of 
the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 

4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- 
longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re- 
ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of 
Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the arch- 
bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should 
remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, during 
his life (f 1680). 

5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg as 
principalities. 

6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- 
bruck, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. 

B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 

1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 

2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in 
the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- 
bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Ru- 
dolfian line (Palatinate). 

3. The territorial superiority (Landeshoheit) of the whole body of 
estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, 
which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another 
and with foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or 
emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg 
developed the German constitution more in detail.) 

4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland 
were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 

1 K. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats- u. EecktsgescMchU-, iv. § 522 foil. 



A. d. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 317 



C. Ecclesiastical Affairs {Gravamina ecclesiastica). 

1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) 
were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 

2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality 
in all affairs of the empire. 

3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by 
which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of 
religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they 
were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) 
was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- 
testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but 
those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation 
during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wurtemberg, Baden, etc.) were 
allowed to resume the exercise of that religion which had been theirs 
in 1618. The jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- 
ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- 
ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. 
The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such 
cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and 
its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and 
Catholics. 

France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (See p. 371.) 



318 



Modern History. 



A. D. 



§ 5. FRANCE. 



(See p. 2(i2.) 



1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angoul&ne. 

Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose 
relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : 

Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. 

i 

I I 

Louis, duke of Orleans, t 1407. 
m. Valentine Visconti. 
I 



Charles VI. 

1380-1422. 



Charles VII. 
1422-1461. 



Louis XI. 
1461-1483. 



Charles, duke of Orleans, 
t 1467. 



Louis XII. 

1498-1515. 
m. ( 2 ) Anna 
of Brittany, 
died without 

male issue. 



John, count of 

Angouleme. 

t 1467. 



Charles, count 

of Angouleme. 

f 1496. 

m. Louise 

of Savoy- 



Charles VIII. 
m. Anna of Brit- 
tany. 1483-1498. 
died without 
male issue. 



Claudia 



Henry II. 

1547-1559. 
m. Catharine of Medici. 

I 



(2) Francis L 
1515-1547. 



Francis II. Elizabeth 
1559-1560 m. m. 

Mary Stuart. Philip II. 
king of 
Spain. 



Charles IX. 
1560-1574. 



Henry III, 

1574-1589. 
duke of 
Anjou ; 
king of 
Poland. 



Francis, Margaret 
duke of m. 

Alen9on Henry IV. 
and see p. 323. 
Anjou, 
t 1584. 



1498-1515. Louis XII. 

obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI., and 
married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep 
this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid 
claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when 
he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 
1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- 

agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and 
French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general 
Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up 
his claims to Naples. 
1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the 

Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy 
League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- 



A., d. France, 319 

ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew of 
Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) 
by storm (Bayard, " without reproach or fear "), and defeating 
the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 
5000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, 
compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French 
formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss 
at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who 
had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian 
who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 
1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty 
Aug. 17. flight of the French. 

France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), 
with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany 
having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry 
VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was 
succeeded by his cousin, the Count of Angouleme, who had married 
Claudia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, 
which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. 
As king the count of Angouleme is known as 

1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- 
solute. 

1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano 
Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and 

alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva 
(Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- 
ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 

1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope 
which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the 

choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on 
the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of 
every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was 
exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of 
Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an oecumenical council. 
1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- 
borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars 
of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' 
reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. 
Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- 
cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was 
succeeded by his son 

1547-1559. Henry II. 

Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis, duke of Guise* 
and Charles, " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 



320 



Modern History. 



A. D. 



HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. 



Rene* le Bon, d. of Anjou 
and titular king of Naples 
and Sicily, m. Isabella, d. 
of Lorraine. 
I 



Margaret, m. 

Henry VI., k. 

of England. 



John II., 
d. of Lor- 
raine and 
Bar. 

Nicolas, 
of Lorraine and Bar. 
t 1473. 
no male issue. 



Yolande, 
d. of Lorraine, 
m. Ferri II., c. of 
Vaudemont, Guise, 
I 



etc. 



Rend II., 
d. of Lorraine and Bar, 
c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. 
t 1508. 
I 



Antoine, d. of 
Lorraine and 
Bar. f 1544. 



Claude I., c. of 
Aumale, d. of 
Guise (1527). 
I 



Francis I., 

d. of Lorraine 
and Bar. 



Francis, d. of 
Guise, mur- 
dered 1563. 



Charles, 
Card, of 
Lorraine. 



Claude, d. 
of Aumale. 



Louis, Mary, m. 
Card, of James V. 
Guise, of Scot- 
land. 

Mary, queen 
of Scots. 



Charles II., d. of Henry, d. Charles, d. of 
Lorraine and Bar. . of Guise. Mayenne. 

f 1608. t 1588. 



Louis, Cardinal 

of Guise. 

f 1588. 



Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled 
him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the 
Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 
1547. Final union of Brittany with the French crown. 

DESCENT OF BRITTANY. 

Francis II. , d. of Brittany, 
t 1488. 

Charles VIII. = i 1 ) Anne ( 2 ) = Louis XT!., k. of France. 
k. of France. I 

Claude = Francis I. 
I 



Francis the 

dauphin. 

t 1536, 

without male 



Henry II., 
k. of France. 



A. d. France. 321 

1552. War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop- 
ries, Toul, Metz, Verdun. 

1556-1559. War with Philip II. of Spain. The French defeated by 
the Spaniards with the aid of the English at 

1557. St. Quentin (on the Soinme), and by count Egmont at Grave-' 
lines (1558). 

1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, 
Jan. captured by Francis, duke of Guise. 

1559. Peace of Cateau-Cambresis : the French restored all their con- 
April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz, Toul 

and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound received in a 
tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 

1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), 

the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the 
Guises. Persecution of the Protestants (chambres ardentes). Cruel 
executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for 
power and influence against the Bourbon princes, Anton (king of Na- 
varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, 
at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all 
affairs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic 
constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chdtillon : 
Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- 
nal Chdtillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De VHopital, 
chancellor. Conspiracy of Amboise (La Renaudie) against the Guises 
defeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 

1560-1574. Charles IX., 

ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha- 
rine de' Medici. 

1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots. 1 

Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. 
At the same time they became a political party opposed to the Catho- 
lic party. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply 
religious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of 
both parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the 
king and get control of the government. The first three wars form 
properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces (Amboise, 1563, 
Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. 
The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- 
nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of 
the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charite. 
1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. 

Aug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- 
guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, 
on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 

1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King Hugo, a spectre 
which, in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets of Paris ; whence 
the Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherings, were called Huguenots. Others 
derive the name from a corruption olEidgenossen, confederates. 
21 



S22 Modem History. A. D. 

Navarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles 
IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- 
tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain 
in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed 
led to the 

1572-1573. Fourth Civil War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, 
duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. 
The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland 
brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 
1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. 
Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- 
land, became king. 

1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. 

The fifth civil war, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- 
sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more 
favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace 
of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alencon) May 6, 
1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the 
Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain 
purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of 
the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- 
claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant 
religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- 
lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- 
litique-Huguenot). 

Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- 
tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers, 
Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become 
too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not one 
of its articles was executed. This caused the 

Seventh Civil War {La guerre des amour eux) (1580), which was 
ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), 
Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former 
treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of Alencon 
(since the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger 
brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of 
Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude 
from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed 
religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of 
Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the 
concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 
1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three 
Henrys {Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of 
Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of 
Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation 
of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition 
of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- 
clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was 
broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, 



A. D. 



France, 



323 



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824 Modern History. a. d. 

1588). Henry III. fled to Blois, where he summoned the estates 
of the kingdom (jfitats-Gene'raux, States General). Finding no sup- 
port among them against the League, he caused Henry, duke of Guise, 
and his brother, Louis the Cardinal, to be murdered (Dec. 23, 1588). 
At this news, a revolt of the Catholic party broke out, headed by 
the brother of the murdered men, the duke of Mayenne. Henry IIL 
fled to Henry of Navarre in the Huguenot camp, where he was mur- 
dered before Paris, at St. Cloud, by the monk Jacques Clement 
(July 31, f Aug. 2). Death of Catharine de' Medici (Jan. 5, 1589). 
Michael Montaigne, 1533-1592. 

1589-1792. (1830.) House of Bourbon 

descended from St. Louis IX.'s younger son Robert, count of 
Clermont, husband of Beatrice of Bourbon. 

15891610. Henry IV. 

The Catholic party refused to recognize Henry and made the 
old cardinal of Bourbon king under the name of Charles X. (f 1590). 
Some wished the duke of Mayenne to be his successor, while others 
joined themselves to Philip II. of Spain, who laid claim to the throne 
of France on behalf of his daughter by his third marriage with Eliz- 
abeth of Valois, sister of Henry III. Victory of Henry IV. over the 
duke of Mayenne at Arques (1589) and at the 

1590. Battle of Ivry. 
March 14. 

Henry besieged Paris, which was relieved by Mayenne ttnd 
the duke of Parma. Henry abjured the reformed religion at St. 
Denis (1593) and was crowned at Chartres (1594). Brissac having 
thereupon surrendered Paris to him, the power of the League was 
broken. Not, however, until Henry, after public penance, by his 
ambassadors at Rome, had been freed from the papal ban, was he 
generally recognized (by Mayenne too). The civil wars of religion 
were ended by the 

1598. Edict of Nantes, 
April 15. 

which gave the Huguenots equal political rights with the 
Catholics, but by no means secured them entire freedom of religious 
worship. The edict granted the exercise of the reformed religion to 
nobles having the right of criminal jurisdiction (seigneurs hauts jus- 
ticiers), and to the citizens of a certain number of cities and towns, 
but prohibited it in all episcopal and archiepiscopal cities, at the 
court of the king, and in Paris, as well as within a circle of twenty 
miles around the capital. Public offices were opened to the Huguenots 
and mixed chambers were established in four Parliaments (Paris, 
Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux). The Huguenots obtained some forti- 
fied towns, and were recognized, to a certain extent, as an armed po- 
litical party. The Edict of Nantes was registered by the Parliament 
only after a long delay. Treaty of Vervins (May 2, 1598) with 
Spain ; restoration of all conquests to France. 

Adoption of measures looking to the improvement of the finances 



A. D. France. 325 

and the general prosperity, which had gone to decay, especially by 
Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully (1560-1641). Fantastic plan of 
the king's (?) to establish a universal Christian republic in Europe, 
comprising six hereditary monarchies (France, England, Spain, Den- 
mark, Sweden, Lombardy), five elective monarchies (the Empire, 
Papacy, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia), and four republics (Switzer- 
land, Italy, Venice, Belgium), which probably would have turned 
out to be a league against the too great power of the house of Haps- 
burg. Question of Cleves-Julich succession. Henry IV. supported 
the claims of Brandenburg. In the midst of great preparations for 
war, Henry was assassinated at Paris, 1610 (May 14), by the fanatic 
(Francois) Ravaillac. He was succeeded by his minor son, 

1610-1643. Louis XIIL, 

nine years old. Regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici 
(1610-1617). Sully removed from office ; the Italian Concini 
(Marechal d'Ancre) was placed in control of affairs. Louis XIIL, 
declared of age in 1614, was in fact all his life under the guidance 
of others. Summons of the States-General, 1614, being the last 
before the Revolution of 1789. Arrest and murder of Concini; 
the queen mother banished to Blois (1617). The king under the in- 
fluence of his favorite, the duke of Luynes. By the mediation of 
Armand-Jean du Plessis (born 1585, in Poitou, 1607 bishop of Lucon, 
1622 cardinal), duke of Richelieu, a treaty was concluded between 
Luynes and the queen mother (1619). New civil war. Contest of 
the crown with the nobility and the Huguenots. After the death of 
Luynes (1621) Mary de' Medici and her favorite, Richelieu, obtained 
control of affairs. The influence of the latter soon became supreme, 
and the queen-dowager quarreled with him. 

1624-1642. Administration of Richelieu, whose influence 
over the king was henceforward unbroken. Numerous con- 
spiracies against Richelieu instigated by Gaston of Orleans, the king's 
brother. 
1625. Revolt of the Huguenots under the dukes of Rohan and Sou- 

bise. 
1627-1628. Siege of La Rochelle, under the personal supervision 
of Richelieu. In spite of the dispatch of three fleets from 
England to the aid of the Huguenots, the city surrendered Oct. 28, 
1628, after a heroic resistance of fourteen months. Defeat of the 
duke of Rohan, and complete subjugation of the Huguenots, who 
hereafter were no longer an armed political party, but only a toler- 
ated sect. War in Italy with Spain ; subjugation of Savoy, Riche- 
lieu at the head of the army. Treaty of Cherasco (April 6, 1631). 
France renounced all conquests in Italy, but by a secret treaty with 
Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, Pignerol was surrendered to France 
(negotiators of these treaties, Richelieu's confidant, Father Joseph 
and the Pope's agent, Mazarin). 

A final attempt of Mary Medici to overthrow the cardinal igno- 
miniously failed (Nov. 11, 1630, the " Day of Dupes "). Mary died 
at Cologne, 1642. 



326 Modern History. A. D. 

Conspiracy of Gaston and the duke of Montmorency. 
1632, Oct. 30. Defeat of the allies and execution of Montmorency. 

Foundation of the French Academy (1635). 
1631-48. Participation of France in the Thirty Years' War. See 

p. 314. 

1641. Conspiracy of Henri d'Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars (" Mon- 

sieur le Grand "). Secret treaty with Spain. The plot was 
exposed by Richelieu. 

1642. Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu. 

The effect of Richelieu's administration had been to break the- 
power.of the nobles and make the crown independent of the parlia- 
ments. He restored French influence in Italy, in the Netherlands, in 
Germany (311), and established it in Sweden. Richelieu laid the 
foundation of the power of Louis XIV. 

Louis XIII. died May 14, 1643. (Seep. 865.) 

§ 6. ITALY. {Seep. 263.) 

The duchy of Milan, since 1556 (p. 306) an appanage of the 
Spanish crown, was held, nominally, as a fief of the empire. 

Venice. , 

The discovery of the new route to the Indies struck at the root of 
the commercial prosperity of Venice, and her power was steadily de- 
clining during this period. The danger which threatened the repub- 
lic from the League of Cambray (1508), between the Pope, the 
emperor Maximilian, Louis XIL, and Ferdinand the Catholic, passed 
away as the Pope, Julius II. withdrew from the League in 1510, made 
his peace with the Venetians and induced Ferdinand the Catholic to 
join the Holy League* which had for its object the expulsion of the 
French from Italy. On the other hand the Turkish power confined 
Venice to the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1570 the X ur ks at- 
tacked Cyprus, of which Venice had acquired possession in 1489 
(p. 262). The victory of Lepanto, gained by Don John of Austria 
(p. 330), retarded the progress of the Turks but little. In 1573 
Venice was forced to deliver Cyprus to them, and at the close of 
this period retained of all her possessions in Grecian waters, Candia, 
Paros, and the Ionian Islands only. 

Genoa. 

Genoa freed herself in 1529 from French supremacy, under the 
doge, Andrea Doria, who gave the republic a new constitution. 
Unsuccessful conspiracy of Fiesco (Jan. 2, 1547). Gianettino Doria, 
the nephew of the doge, was murdered, and Andrea Doria was com- 
pelled to fly. The conspirators had got possession of nearly the whole 
city, when Fiesco was accidentally drowned. Return of the doge, 
restoration of the constitution. 



A. ©. Italy. 327 



Savoy. 

The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont, were the most 
powerful of the native dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, 
during this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they 
got into straits during the war between France and the empire. 
After the peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), Emmanuel Philibert was 
reinstated in his duchy. 

Florence. 

In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), 
Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the 
king, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola 
(born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic 
party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- 
ence. Savonarola excommunicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). 
In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the 
Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second 
time expelled, and the republic for a while restored. In 1530, how- 
ever, Charles V. appointed Alexander de' Medici hereditary ruler in 
Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by 
his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo (Cosmus)de } Medici became duke (1537). 
He incorporated the republic of Siena with his territory, and in 1569 
Was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- 
mo II., Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 
1633, was forced to abjure the Copernican System by the Inquisition 
at Rome (" It does move though " *). 

The Papacy. 

The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched 
and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. 
His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia; his second son Cwsar Borgia, 
ruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius II. (1503-1513); the schol- 
arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici, a patron of art ; 
the fanatical Paul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice 
Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIII. 
(1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at 
the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise 
and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the 
Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion 
of the dome of St. Peter's 2 ). 

Naples. 

Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 
1504, see p, 318). Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso Aniello, 
called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). 

Most flourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da 
Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483- 

1 This saving, it is now claimed, is unauthenticated. — [Trans.] 

2 Kanke, die rdmischen Pdpste, 6th ed., 1878. 



328 Modern History. A. D. 

1520); Antonio Allegri, called Correggio (1494-1534); Michael Angelo 
Buonarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; Titian (1477- 
1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588). Poets: Ariosto (1474- 
1533) ; Torquato Tasso (1544-1595). Politician : Macchiavelli (1469- 
1527). {Seep. 415.) 

§ 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
{See p. 276.) 
By the marriage of 

1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 
1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the 

accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the 

future union of the two kingdoms. 
1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom 
Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America 

(p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of the 
ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see 
p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the grandmaster- 
ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara 
(1494), and San J ago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the 
league of the cities (Hermandad) against the robber-nobles; (Spanish) 
Inquisition. 

Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joanna, wife of Philip, 
archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her 
father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned the 
union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain, obtained from 
the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent 
daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- 
dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- 
Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the 
treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the 
regency (f 1516). Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- 
finement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her 
son Charles. 1 Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first as 
co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. 

Netherlands. 

Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians 
and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the 
Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to 
Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The 
decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties 
and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders, Guelders, Holland, Zealand, 
Hainault, and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384, and during the 
fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the 
dukes of Burgundy. 

1 The view advanced by Bergenrotb. {Karl V. unci Johanna, in V. Sybel's 
Hist. Zeits.. 1868), that Joanna was only declared insane from political reasons, 
has been clearly shown by other scholars (Gachard, Rcesler, Maurenbrecher) 
to rest on misunderstandings. 



£.. D. Spanish Ptninsula and the Netherlands. 329 

Philip H. the Bold, 

fourth son of John II., k. of France. In 1363 made duke 
of Burgundy (the duchy reverted to the crown, 1361, by the 
extinction of the first ducal line in the person of Philip I.). 
In 1369 m. Margaret, dau. and heiress of Louis III., c. of 
Flanders and Artois, f 1404. 



John the Fearless, 
duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. 

Philip the Good, 
duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. 
Acquired Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant 
and Limburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. 
of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, 
brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault 
(Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hol- 
land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- 
sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; he 
also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. 



Charles the Bold, 

duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. 
Acquired G-elderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest 
from duke Arnold. 



Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- 
duke of Austria. 



Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- - 
nand of Arragon, and 
Isabella of Castile. 



Philip the Handsome, 

archduke of Austria, 
duke of Burgundy. 



Charles I. (V.) 

k. of Spain; archduke of Austria, d. of Burgundy, 
k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, 
emperor. 

They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united 
and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the 
seventeen provinces (Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- 
ders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, East and 
West Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, Grbningen) to the Bui* 
gundian circle of the empire. 

1516-1556. Charles I. (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). 



330 Modern History. A. D. 

After suppressing a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mon- 
archy, the Cortes henceforth having no importance. In America con- 
quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his 
abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, 
Franche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 

1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times : 1. Mary of 
Portugal, mother of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng- 
land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. Anne, daughter of 
Maximilian II. 

War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and 
the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da fe (i. e. acts of the 
faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- 
ter was arrested and died in prison (1568). Don John of Austria, a 
natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 

1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 

1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. 

Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after 
the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and 
important privileges. The estates (Staaten, etats) granted taxes and 
troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the 
dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the 
rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister 
of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of 
the nobles (the Compromis de Breda), headed by Philip Marnix of St. 
Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles (Gueux, Beggars, 
a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the 
count of Barlaimont : Ce n'est qu'un tas de gueux). Insurrection of 
the lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. 
These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 
1522, fought under Charles V . in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the 
cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of 
Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and 
William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- 
ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- 
ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although 
quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 

1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, 
and Franche Comte to the Netherlands. William of Orange 
and many thousand Netherlander left their native land. Margaret 
resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council 
of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others 
were executed (1568). The estates of those who did not appear be- 
fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of 
Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis of Orange, invaded the 
Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. 

The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the 
price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), 
produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse 
by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, 
particularly in the northern provinces. 



A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 

1573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re- 
quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 

1574. At Mookerheide, where two brothers of the prince of Orange 
fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (1576). The 

sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal 
troops brought about the 

1576. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, 
whereby they united, without regard to national or religious 
differences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. 

The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- 
nized by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes 
which had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, 
and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, duke of 
Parma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. 
He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- 
gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- 
cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, 
Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Priesland, Overyssel, con- 
cluded 

1579. The Union of Utrecht, 

proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) 
and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon William of Orange 
(the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- 
land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, 
converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 
1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 
10th July, 1584). After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- 
year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. 
Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. 
The help furnished the Hollanders by the English (Leicester) induced 
Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible 
storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest 
with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 

1598-1621. Philip III. 

1609. The twelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the 
time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- 
vorites, the idukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and 
the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the 
demoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- 
duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the 
most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the 
expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 

1621-1665. Philip IV. 

The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 
1648- recognition of their independence from Spain and the 
empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 



332 



Modern History. 



A. D. 



Under Philip III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the 
Spanish power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. 
Revolt of Portugal. 

Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 
1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the 
Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson 
of Hugh Capet. 



John, the Bastard, 
son of Pedro the Cruel, 
i 



I 
Edward. 

I 
Ferdinand. 

J 
Emanuel. 

I 



Isabella m. 
Charles V. 



John III. Lewis. Henry. Edward. 



Philip II. = Maria. John. The Prior 
k. of Spain. I of Crato. 

Don Carlos. Sebastian. 



Beatrice, m. 
Charles III. 
d. of Savoy, 



Emanuel 

Philibert, 

d. of Savoy. 



Alfonso. 
Fernando. 
Fernando- 



James. 



Theodosius. 



Maria m. 
Alexander of 
Parma. 

Ranuccio 
of Parma. 



Catharine 



John. 



Theodosius. 
John IV. 



Kings of Portugal in heavy type. Claimants (except Philip II.) in italics. 



1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. 

Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and 

Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese 

power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 

1578. Battle of A Ikassor in Morocco. After the death of his succes- 
sor, Henry, 

1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false 
Sebastians. 1 An almost bloodless revolution raised to the 
throne of Portugal the duke 

1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother 
from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate 
son of John the Bastard). (See pp. 890, 4U-) 

1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown of 
Portugal. 



A., d. England and Scotland, 333 

§ 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. {Seep. 275.) 

1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 
1485-1509. Henry VII. 

Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of 
the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the 
crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- 
tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the 
consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned 
without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the 
county where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- 
peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before 
a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority 
from the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- 
tablishment of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took 
cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- 
tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 
1487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, 
but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one 
of the king's scullions. 
1488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- 
ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by 
Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended 
the war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation 
of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception 
in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. 
Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with 
England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where 
his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- 
vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke 
out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. 
It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and 
the leaders executed (Flammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). 
Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where he 
escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of 
Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 
1495. Statute of Drogheda {Poyninfs law). 1. No Irish parliament 
should be held without the consent of the king of England. 
2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament 
without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- 
lish parliament should hold in Ireland 
1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James 
IV., king of Scotland. 
Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various 
extortions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton's Fork ") he accumulated a for- 
tune of nearly £2,000,000. 

During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by 
Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 



334 Modern History. A. D. 

1509-1547. Henry VIII., 

of a cruel disposition and variable temperament. He was six 
times married : 1. Catharine of Ar agon, widow of his brother Arthur, 
mother of Mary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March 
30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 
1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 
1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537). 
4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. 
Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542)„ 
6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, 
outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both 
Lancaster and York. 

Execution of Empson and Dudley. 
1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from 

the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." 
Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to 

Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king 

went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, 

won the bloodless victory of 
1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 

1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of 

James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 

1514, Aug. Peace with France (Tournay ceded to England, after- 

wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with 
Scotland. 

1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- 
pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member 
of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- 
coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 
1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f 
Nov. 28, 1530). 

1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near 

Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold"). 

1521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high 
treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 
277). 

1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- 
ply to Luther, and received the title of "Defender of the 
Faith " from Pope Leo X. 
After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the 
emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- 
peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so 
strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed 
on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to 
force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion 
was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 
1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne 
Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased 
brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and 
the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of 



A. r>. England and Scotland. — Henry VIII. 335 

the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence 
and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At 
the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- 
sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's 
favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the 
Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- 
ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). 

The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from 
Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro- 
nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the 
divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- 
cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of 
the princess. 

1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- 
sors " Protector and only Supreme Head of the 
Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to 

take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under 
which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded 
(1535). 

Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- 
cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to 
the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of 
monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller 
(1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the 
confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- 
ment. 

1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess 
Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown 
was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that 
fail, was left to his disposal. 

1536. Publication of Tyndale's translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, 
under authority from the king. 

1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by 
Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter 
of George, duke of Clarence. 

1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any 
of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 
2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the 
priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity 
of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 

1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell 
had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the 
king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was 
ill pleased. 

1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 

1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the 

Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. 

James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage 
between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 



Modern History. A. D. 

but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with France, 
whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 

1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the 
crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 

1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- 
fiscated. 

1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. 

Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown 
was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in 
the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 

1547-1553. Edward VI., 

ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed 

lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. 

Bepeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- 
trines. 

1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, 
who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. 
Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; 
introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second, 
1553). 
Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord 
Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- 
cution of Somerset (1.552). 

1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 

1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter 
of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter 
of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, 
daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the 
son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , 
July 6, 1553. 

1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. 

The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- 
land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and 
others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). 
Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, 
author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 

1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of 

Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Philip was to have the title 
of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of 
Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish 
marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir 
Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- 
pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane 
Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- 
complished scholar {Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. 
Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession 
of the emperor. 

1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary .and Philip. 

1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants {Bonner, bishop of Lon- 



A. D. 



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338 Modern History. A. d. 

don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt 
at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this per- 
secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate 
(1556). 

1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of 
the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 

1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of 
Guise. 

Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 

1558-1603. Elizabeth. 

Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. 
Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- 
tion of Mary; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the 
church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- 
book. 

1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with France. Calais to be 
April 2. ceded to England in eight years. 

On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- 
sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity 
exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- 
beth and the Scottish reformers. 

1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. 
July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a 

Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 

1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., 

where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. 
(John Knox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 
1572.) 

1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- 

two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment 
of the Anglican Church {Church of England, Episcopal Church) ; 
Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par- 
tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyte- 
rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of 
Canterbury (1559). 

1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- 

nounced for 220,000 crowns. 
In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- 
vorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. 
10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- 
edge of the queen. 1 Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. 
The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated 
Mary at Carbury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Loch- 
leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., 
July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from 
captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, 
where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement* (1568). 

1 Gaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Mary and Bothwell has been 
recently defended by John Watts De Peyster. 



A. d. England and Scotland. — Elizabeth. 339 

1575. , Elizabeth declined the government of the Netherland prov- 
inces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. 

1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 

1583-84. Plots against the queen. (Arden, Parry) ; Spanish plot of 
Throgmorton • execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- 
ing with Mary. Bond of Association. 

1585. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of 

Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir 
Philip Sidney. 

1586. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of 

St. Domingo and Carthagena • rescue of the Virginia colony 
(p. 290). 

1586. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered 
by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the 
conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of 
Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 
1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she 
alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed 
Feb. 8, 1587. 

1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. 
The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 
3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet 
(Howard, Drake, Hawkins), July 21-29, and destroyed by a 
storm off the Hebrides. 

1597. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone ; 
the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led 
to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subju- 
gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the 
earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed 
by his execution (1601). 

1600. Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth 
March 24, 1603. 
William Shakespeare, 1564-1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; 

Edmund Spenser, 1553-1599 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536 ; Ben 

Jonson, 1574-1637. 

1603-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal 
Union of England and Scotland. 

1603-1625. James I., 

as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The 
Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned 
but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- 
dom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops (" no 
bishop, no king "). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation 
made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both 
places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar 
circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- 
tioned ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by 
political and constitutional questions. 
1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; he entered London 



340 Modern History. A. d, 

on the 7th of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of the 
millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in London, 
signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. 

The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethrone 
James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), con- 
cocted by lord Cobham, Grey and others. Sir Walter Raleigh was also 
implicated and imprisoned until 1616 ("History of the World"). 
The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison the 
king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Romy (Sully). 
1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishops 

and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans failed 
to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. The 
king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338), 
and one banishing Jesuits and seminary priests (Goodwin and 
Fortescue). 
1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. 

The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotland 
unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigate 
the matter. 

1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at first 
established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical tax- 
ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement of 
church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from the 
king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of the 
king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Puri- 
tans that three hundred clergymen left their livings rather than con- 
form. 

Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britain, 
France and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusants 
(under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go to 
church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 

1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, 

originating in 1604 with Robert Catesby, after the edict banish- 
ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prep- 
arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament with thirty-six barrels 
of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter to 
Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-law, 
Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Fawkes, in the vaults on Nov. 
4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and execution 
of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 

1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Episco- 
pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union anew 
but in vain. 

Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begin- 
ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established by 
Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditure, 
he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary grant, 
which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Trial 
of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. Th* 
court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. 



A. D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 

1607. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 

1608. Establishment of new impositions. 

1610. The Great Contract • in return for the surrender of some 
feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income of 
£200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over 
the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 

1611. Plantation of Ulster, which was forfeited to the crown by the 
rebellion of Tyrone. 

Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the 
patents. 

1611. Completion of the translation of the Bible, which was 
authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven minis- 
ters since 1604. 
Imprisonment of Arabella Stuart. 

1613. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), 
created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of 
the earl of Salisbury (Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince 
of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 

1613. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to 
the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was 
imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar- 
riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. 

1614, Apr. 5-June 7. Second Parliament of James I. Three 
hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- 
setshire), Thomas Wentivorth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- 
niains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling with 
the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved 
without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled 
parliament. 

1615. Renewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to 
a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- 
lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned 
by the chief justice, Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards 
dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of 
Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul. 

1616. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the 
poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's 
favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. 

1617. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed to 
sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mine. 
Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. 

1618. Proclamation allowing sports on Sunday after church in Scot- 
land (Articles of Perth). Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, vis- 
count of St. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under 
the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. 

1619. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. 

1620. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, in New England 
(p. 294). 

1621. Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third Parliament of James I. The 

parliament granted a supply for the prosecution of the war in 



342 ! Modern History. A. D. 

the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then 
took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and 
Mitchell, who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- 
facture of gold and silver thread; they were degraded, fined, and ban- 
ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. 
Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, 
but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,- 
000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding office 
in the future. Petition of the commons against popery and the 
Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling in 
affairs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew from 
the parliament 

1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- 

chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient 
and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England, 
and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, and 
defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council 
and debate in parliament." The king tore the page containing the 
protestation from the journal of the commons. 

1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. 

Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pym, Selden. Earl of 
Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 

1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham., 
went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis- 
ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excite 
great dissatisfaction in England; finally, being unable to secure 
any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles and 
Buckingham returned in anger. 

Massacre of English residents on the island of Amboyna by the 
Dutch. 

1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. 

The Spanish marriage was broken off, but even the anger of 
Buckingham could not drive the parliament into a declaration of war 
with Spain. Supplies voted for defense. Mansfeld raised 1,200 
men in England who reached Holland but nearly all perished there 
from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for the 
marriage of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis 
XIII. 

1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. 

1625-1649. Charles I. 

1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. 

Ships sent to Louis Xlll. secretly engaged not to fight against 

the Huguenots. 

1625. First Parliament of Charles I. 

(Assembled June 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolved 

Aug. 12.) 
Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,000 
for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague (" appello 
Ccesarem" 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon against 
Cadiz. 



A. d. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 

1626, Feb. 6-June 15. Second Parliament of Charles I. 

Charles had hoped for a more pliable parliament, as he had 
appointed several of the leaders of the first parliament sheriffs, 
and so kept them out of the second. But this parliament, 
under the lead of Sir John Eliot, was more intractable than 
the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order 
of the king, received one on the interference of the lords, but 
was requested not to appear. He took his seat and brought 
charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- 
peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- 
ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia- 
ment to proceed to business without them. 
War declared against France (1626-1630). 

1627, Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Rochelle 
(IsleofRhe). 

Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and 
for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- 
tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for 
refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, 
having been committed by the king's order, though without 
distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 

1628, March 17-1629, March 10. Third Parliament of Charles 
I. 

May. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of benevo- 
lences, and all forms of taxation without consent of parliament. 
2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- 
mission should be given to military officers to execute martial 
law in time of peaca. 4. No one should be imprisoned unless 
upon a specified charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of 
five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- 
waring. 
Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy 
tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance 
against that practice. 

June 26. Prorogation of parliament. 

Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and 
poundage. 

Aug. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Felton. 

1629, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, 

for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once 
took up the question of tonnage and poundage; claim of privi- 
lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods 
had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. 
Adjournment of the house of commons. 
March 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of 
commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions 
of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- 
ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church; 
whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without 
grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such duties s 
was an enemy of the kingdom. 



344 Modern History. A. d. 

March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisonment of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). 
March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles 
governed "without a parliament, raising money by illegal 
levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. 
Charles' advisers : William Laud (b. 1573, president of St. John's 
college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I.'s 
chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 
1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; 
privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 
1630 ; in Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 
1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- 
tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; 
\n parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- 
ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- 
worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscount Wentworth, 
1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to 
Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Strafford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed, May, 1641), 
"Weston, lord treasurer. 
1630, April. Peace with France. 

1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). 

1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. 

1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 

1633. June. Charles crowned at Edinburgh with ceremonies distaste- 

ful to the Scots. 
Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of 
conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment 
of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an 
attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried 
and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- 
ough." 

1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard 
towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and 
extended over the whole kingdom. 

1635. Second writ for ship-money. 

1637. Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, pilloried. 

June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in 
compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular 
tumult at St. Giles. 

June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of 
ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- 
cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. 
Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, were prevented from 
sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 

1638, Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant 

(based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgh, 
for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- 
vations. 
1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgow; abolition of episcopacy, 
the new liturgy, and the canons ; the kirk declared independent 
of the state. 



A., d. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 345 

1639. The first bishops' war. 

The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army. 
Charles marched to meet them near Berwick, but an agreement was 
reached without a battle. 

1639, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies 

were to be disbanded, and differences referred to a new 
general assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin- 
burgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgoiv, and the parlia- 
ment proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great 
that he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Strafford, 
and summoned 

1640, April 13 -May 5. The fourth Parliament of Charles I. 

(" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. 
As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, 
the parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults ; attack on Laud's 
palace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by 
Elizabeth, to try offenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the 
crown). 
1640. Second bishops' war. 

Defeat of the royal troops at Newburn on the Tyne (Aug. 28). 
The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty 
of Ripon (Oct. 26). A permanent treaty was set in prospect; 
meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by 
Charles. Acting upon the advice of the peers, Charles now 
summoned 

1640, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. 

The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). 
First Session. 

Nov. 3, 1640-Sept. 8, 1641. 

The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until 
paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the king, 
which they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. 
Nov. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- 
peachment of Laud. Both were committed to the Tower. 

1641, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament 

should assemble every three years even without being sum- 
moned by the king. 

March 22. Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of 
the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of 
attainder introduced, which passed both nouses (commons, 
Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). 
Bill to prevent clergymen from holding civil office introduced 
but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for 
the abolition of bishops ("root and branoh bill "). 

May 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder 
against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- 
tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its 
own consent. (" Act for the perpetual Parliament") 



346 Modern History. A. D. 

1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. 

July. Abolition of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- 
sion. 

Aug. Treaty of pacification with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- 
lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles 
went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- 
endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars 
in England)," with the king. 

Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- 
tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons' 
committee. 
Attempt of the king to conciliate the " moderates " in parlia- 
ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Gary, 
lord Falkland). 

Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the 
seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, 
in which the king was thought to have a share. The discovery 
of the plot (" the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of 
Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles 
gave the state offices to Argyle and his part} r , and the latter 
agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. 

Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of the 
Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of 
Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England. 
Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an 
army. 

1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the 

house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de- 
bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a 
summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Dec. 14 the 
remonstrance was ordered to be printed. 
Several of the bishops having declared their inability to attend 
parliament on account of the conduct of the mob, and protested 
against the action of parliament in their absence, they were 
committed to the Tower for breach of privilege (Dec. 30). 
The petition of the commons for a guard under the earl of 
Essex rejected by the king. 

1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, 
Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- 
mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent 
war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles 
resolved to take matters into his own hands. 

Jan. 4. Attempt to seize the five members. 

Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five 
hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent 
he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwhile, were 
in London. The commons immediately followed them, and 
formed themselves into a committee which sat at the Guild- 
hall, under the protection of the citizens. 

Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- 
liament on the following day. Jan. 12, rising at Kingston, 



A. d. England and Scotland. 347 

The freeholders of Buckinghamshire sent a remonstrance to the 
king. The commons made sure of several places and hastened 
to lay before the king a bill excluding the bishops from 
the house of Lords, which he signed, and a bill securing to 
the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- 
fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was 
joined in April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of 
the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- 
tempt on Hull. 
Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordinances 
which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed 
in May they assumed control of the militia. 

June 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the 
king, demanding that the king should give his assent to the 
militia bill ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to 
officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church 
government should be reformed in accordance with the wishes 
of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all 
royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's children, and 
have the power of excluding from the upper house at will all 
peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- 
nantly rejected. 

July. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. 
Essex appointed captain-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 
4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. 

Aug. 22. Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 

1642-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. 

Oct. 23. Drawn battle of Edgehill. (Prince Rupert, son of the 
elector palatine and Elizabeth of England.) The king marched 
upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and 

Nov. 12. the trained bands of London under Skippon, he retired 
without fighting. " Affair of Brentford." 

Dec. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, 
Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en- 
trusted to Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 in Hunting- 
don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 

1643, Feb.-Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- 
newal of the war. In Feb. the queen landed in Yorkshire, 
bringing assistance from Holland. 

Apr. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. 

May. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- 
ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and 
at Roundway Down (July). 

June 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at Chal- 
grove field, f June 24. 

July 1. Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the 
settlement of religious and theological matters. 

July 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kingdom) by 
Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament. 

Sept. Essex relieved Gloucester, which was gallantly defended by 
Massey. 



348 Modern History, A. D. 

1643, Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. 
Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant by 

twenty-five peers and 288 members of the commons. Parlia- 
ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, 
and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- 
ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the 
best reformed churches." All civil and military officers and all 
beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant 
(nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). 
Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. 

Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and took 
the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the 
war in England. 

Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 

1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- 
vened at Oxford by the king. 

Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomas 

Fairfax. 
Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. 
March. Trial of Laud. 

York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford by 
Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House (countess of Derby) 
raised by Rupert (May). 
July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. 

Prince Rupert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de- 
feated by Cromwell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). 

Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, while 
the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the 
north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle 
Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de- 
feat of Waller at the 

June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the 

Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es- 
sex escaped to London by sea. 
1644, Aug.-1645, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. 

Montrose entered Scotland in disguise, Aug. 1644. Victory 
of Tippamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of Aberdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 ; 
capture of Perth; Montrose retired to Athole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castle 
(Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Badenach (Nov. 6) ; harrying of 
Argyleshire (Dec-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy at 
Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb. 1). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren- 
der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone- 
haven (March 21). Victory of Auldearn (May 4) ; victory of 
Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept. 
3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De- 
feat of Montrose at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). 

1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the king 

and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. 
Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmas 
made a fast. 

1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. 



A. d« England and Scotland. 349 

1645, Jan.-Feb. Truce known as the treaty of Uxbridge ; the pro- 

posals of the parliament rejected by the king. 
Dissensions within the parliament. Rise of the sect of indepen- 
dents (advocates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- 
tion to the Presbyterians. Cromwell fast becoming the leading man 
in England since the victory of Marston Moor. Quarrel with Man- 
chester. 

April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the 
commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem= 
bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- 
lishment of Presbyterianism, with some reservations in favor 
of the independents. 
Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, 
lieutenant-general (suspension of the self-denying ordinance 
in his case). 
Introduction of reform in the army after the plans of Crom- 
well ; the new model. 
June 14. Battle of Naseby. 

Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of 
his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- 
cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), 
Carlisle, Winchester, Basing House (Oct.), Latham House 
(Dec). 
March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the-Wold ; 
last battle of the civil war. 

1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. 
July 24. Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle. 

Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years ; 
Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian 
establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring 
to await the result of the impending breach between parlia- 
ment, representing Presbyterianism, and the army, comprising 
the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera- 
tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. 

1647, Jan. 30. The Scots surrendered Charles to the parliament on 

payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles 
was brought to Holmby House in Northamptonshire. 
Contention between parliament and the army. The commons 
voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison 
purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- 
chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new 
model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears 
were satisfied. 

May 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary 
propositions. It was too late. 

June 4. Charles seized at Holmby House by cornet Joyce and carried 
to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the 
intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled 
to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an 
oath not to disband until liberty of conscience was secure, and 



350 Modern History. A. D. 

had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of 
adjudicators. 

1647, June 10. The army at St. Albans. " Humble representation " 

addressed to parliament. 

June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of 
eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it (Holies). 

July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on 
account of a change in the commanders of the London militia 
which the army had requested. 
The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons 
fled to the army. 

July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and 
worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- 
tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of 
state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of 
commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- 
don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin- 
ster. 

Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which 
had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton 
Court. 

Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a modified form of the 
nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- 
pared, but before its presentation 

Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained 
by the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. 

Dec. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. 
Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All 
declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be 
recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to 
Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two 
houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only 
playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from 
Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had 
already signed 

Dec. 26. A secret treaty with the Scots (" The Engagement"). 
Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- 
rianism ; the Scots, who looked with horror on the rising tide 
of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of 
arms. 

1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king, 
and voted to have no more communication with him. 

1648. Second Civil War. 

At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between 

the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the 

Presbyterians and the Independents. 
Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. 
March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the 

king must be brought to trial. 
April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians 

having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani* 



A. D. The North and East. 351 

fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Vir- 
tual repeal of the non-communication resolution. 

1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, 

aimed at the independents, especially at Cromvjell, Ireton, etc. 
July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. 
Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. 

Royalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in 

London. 
July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England- 

Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots 

in the 
Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, 

and annihilated their army. 
Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second 

civil war. 
Sept. 18-Nov. " Treaty of Newport " negotiated between the king 

and the parliament, without result. 
Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. 
Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. 
Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). 
Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis 

on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the 

last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. 
Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council 

of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) 

from the parliament. 
The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). 
Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that 

Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to 

Windsor (Dec. 23). 

1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) 

to try the king ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the 
commons resolved 

Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- 
mons. 

Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance without the concurrence of the 
lords. 

Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up 
by the army. 

Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members 
present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the 
jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. 

Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at "Whitehall in London. 

{Seep. 875.) 

§ 9. THE NORTH AND EAST. {Seep. 276.) 

The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened 
by the action of Sweden, since the election of 

1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- 
pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian II 



352 Modern History. A. d. 

1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians un- 
der the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- 
mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- 
guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and 
became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). 

Sweden. {Seep. 276.) 

1523-1654. House of Vasa. 

1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. 

The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by 
his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- 
dered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., 
whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and 
hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX. the youngest 
son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 
1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with 

Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' 
War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 
1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs 

of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin 
Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, son of a sister of Gustavus 
Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. 

{See p. 373.) 
Denmark and Norway. {See p. 276.) 

These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- 
mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by 
his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish 
throne as 

1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his 
death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts {Jiirgen 
Wullenwever, burghermaster of Liibeck). Frederic's son 
1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- 
mation. For the participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty 
Years' War, see p. 310. After a 

1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender 

the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Bromsebro 

(p. 315). {See p. 373.) 

Poland. {See p. 277.) 

1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest extent 
{Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de- 
cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 
1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the 
liberum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- 
phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house 
of Vasa ; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668 j. 

K {Seep. 374.) 

Russia. {See p. 276.) 

After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of 
•uccession lasting ten years (the false Demetrius J 



A. d. The North and East. 353 

1613- The house of Romano w succeeded to the throne, 
which it occupied until 1762. (See p. 37£.) 

Turks. (Seep. 278.) 

The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development 
under Soliman II. (1520-1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary 
of the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began 
the decline, caused especially by the influence of the Janizaries. 

India. (See p. 2Jf.l.) 

1497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 

1498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut 
by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 

The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various 
dynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter 
half of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the 
Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitu- 
tion was as follows : At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan 
dynasty with greatly reduced dominion ; in Bengal (1340-1576), 
Afghan (Muhammedan) kings ; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- 
medan dynasty had its capital at Ahmeddbdd ; in the Deccan the 
Muhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated 
into five kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1686), Golconda (1512-1687), 
Ahmednagar (1490-1636), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (1492- 
1609[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands 
of the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1565). 

Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cabral (on the voyage acciden- 
tal discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of 
Portugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, 
Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy 
of India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso aV Albuquerque was ap-. 
pointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 

1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. 

The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of 
Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- 
queror of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the 
Punjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the 

1526. Battle of Panipat. 1 

Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527). Under Babar's son Hu- 
mdyun (1530-56) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shah, 
the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under 
Humayun's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the 
Afghans at Panipat (1556). 

1556-1605. Akbar the Great 

whose reign is a long series of conquests. 

1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on that 
same plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Umpire, p. 234.) 
23 



354 Modern History. A. D t 

1565. Battle of Talikot. 

Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of 
the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deccan. 

Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chit- 
lor; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586-92 
Kashmir ; 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now comprised 
all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not suc- 
cessful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military 
and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was suc- 
ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was much 
troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without last- 
ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahar, several times 
lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally 
lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. Shah Jahan won some successes in 
the Deccan ; submission of Bijdpur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. The 
empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock 
throne). Shah Jahan deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisoned 
(died 1666). 

From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the 
trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutch 
and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company of 
London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com- 
panies were established at different times ; but all were ultimately 
incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com- 
pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 ; 
Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com- 
pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad- 
ing to the East Indies " [" English Company "], 1698-1709, united 
with the original company as " The United Company of Merchants 
of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyages 
were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the com- 
pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat of 
the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 1614. 
Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty 
with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on 
the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng- 
lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 
1635. Foundation of Madras {Fort St. George), 1639. 

Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 
1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's). (Seep. 889.) 

China. (See p. 278.) 

1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of Ning suppressed 

after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established 

themselves at Macao. 
1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing. 

Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 
1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to 

relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery. 
1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances 

the emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se. 



A.. D. China. — Japan, 355 

1592. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled 

to sue for peace. 
1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet 

and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 

1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- 
ity in China (f 1610). 

1604. l)utch in China ; also the Spanish. 

1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the 
Chinese, and returning in 

1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung. 

1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, threw off the pretense of alle- 
giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He 
established his capital at San-Koo. 

Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed 

by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 

1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) 
dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and 
Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for 
aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, 
but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing 
Pekin they raised to the throne of China a son of Teen-ning, 
the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 

1644 — x, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 
1644. Shun-che. 

Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- 
gering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and 
the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more 
and more common. {See p. 890.) 

Japan. {See p. 278.) 

The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few 
events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties 
in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power 
on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate 
between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause 
of much fighting. 

1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. 

This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three 
of the most renowned men of Japan : Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, Tokugawa 
Iyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism 
had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed 
that of the mikado. Ota Nobunaga was a feudal lord who acquired 
fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto. 
(1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the un- 
happy country, while his aid was also sought by Yoshiaki, the rightful 
shogun, who had been dispossessed by Yoshikage. By the battle of 
Anagawa (1570), where Tokugawa Iyeyasu fought under Nobunaga, 
Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by No- 
bunaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 



356 Modern History. A. D. 

1573-1582. Government of Nobunaga. 

Nobunaga appointed no successor but retained the power in 
his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- 
powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit 
Xavier at Kioto) under his protection. Slaughter of the Bud- 
dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. 
Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 

1582-1598. Government of Hideyoshi. 

The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after 
considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection 
(1592). War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- 
shi was unfavorable to Christianity. 1588, publication of a de- 
cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was 
not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- 
saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an infant 
son, under the regency of Tokugawa Iy ey asu, whose govern- 
ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles 
that led to war. 

1600. Battle of Sekigahara. Iyeyasu defeated his enemies, and in 
1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shogun, being the first of the 

1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- 
quently took the title of Tai-kun (Tycoon) " high prince." 

The rule of Iyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning 
and the growth of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). Iyeyasu re- 
signed his office in 1605 to his son but retained his power until his 
death. 

Iyeyasu died 1616, leaving the " Legacy of Iyeyasu," a code of 
laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crown who re- 
ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called daimios and 
numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (koku- 
sliiu). Next to the daimios stood the samurai, to whom the daimios 
leased their farms in return for military service. 

The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by 
the hatamoto, " house-carls," from whom he selected his officials. 
They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were 
the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, 
comprising the Tokugawa clan. Iyeyasu removed the capital of the 
shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of Iyeyasu, Hide- 
tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report 
not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction 
of that religion. 

1630-1643. Too-Fuku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, 
and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former 
on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. 

Iyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- 
lent ruler, but ordered the vigorous enforcement of laws against the 
Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese 
and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki. 
1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed j 



A. D. America. 357 

massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. 
Extirpation of Christianity. Death of Tyemitsu, 1649. 

(See p. 445.) 
SECOND PERIOD. 

FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINNING OF 
THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

1648-1789. 
A. The second half of the seventeenth century. 

§ 1. AMERICA. (See p. 800.) 

British, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies. 

1644= Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- 
port, Portsmouth) under one charter, obtained by Roger 
Williams. 
Union of Saybrook and Connecticut under the latter name. 
The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New- 
Haven numbered six. 
Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into 
two houses. 

April 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- 
ginia. 

1645. Rebellion of Clayborne and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized 
the government, but were put down in 1646. 

1646. In Massachusetts John Eliot commenced his missionary 
labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the 
Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). 

Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies 
from all duty for three years, on condition that colonial pro- 
ductions should be exported only in English vessels. 

In New Netherlands Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, 
as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the 
region between Cape Henlopen and Cape Cod. 

1648. The petition of Rhode Island 1 to be admitted to the union 
rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- 
tion of Plymouth. 

1649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the 
Gospel in New England." 

Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to 

lord Culpepper and other royalists. 
Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 

1650. Agreement between New Netherlands and the United 
Colonies establishing the boundary between the Dutch and 
English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay, 
Connecticut. 

1 "Where Rhode Island is mentioned, before the charter of 1663, it is prob- 
able that the Island only is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. 



358 Modern History. A. D. 

1651. Passage of the Navigation Act in England (p. 376). 

1652. The province of Maine joined to Massachusetts. 

The parliament in England assumed control of Maryland, and 
suspended the government of Rhode Island, but the latter 
order did not take effect. 

1655. Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherlands, seized the Swed- 
ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of New 
Sweden. 

1659. Virginia proclaimed Charles II. king of England, Scotland, 
Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Sir 
William Berkeley. 
Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 

1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 

1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Haven 
refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov- 
ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputies 
from every town. 

1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 

1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) to 
the earl of Clarendon and associates. 

Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 

1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to the 
Delaware, to the king's brother, James, duke of York and 
Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, and 
islands south and west of Cape Cod, 

The region between the Hudson and the Delaware (Nova Cmsarea, 

or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkeley, 

and Sir George Carteret. 
Aug. 27. Surrender of New Amsterdam to the English ; name of 

the colony changed to New York. 
Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed to 

Albany. 

1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges. 
Union of Connecticut and New Haven. 

The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in New 
England, after conferring with the general court of Massachu- 
setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not ac- 
knowledge their commission. 

1666. Depredations of the buccaneers in the West Indies. 

1667. Grant of the Bahamas to the proprietors of Carolina. 

1667. Treaty of Breda between England and France. Acadia sur- 
rendered to France ; Antigua, Monserrat, and the French part 
of St. Christopher surrendered to England. 

1668. Massachusetts reassumed the government of Maine. 

1669. Adoption of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina 

which were drawn up by John Locke. 
Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. (Governor 
and company of adventurers of England trading into Hud< 
son's Bay.) 

1670. Foundation of Charlestown in Carolina. 



A. D. America. 359 

Treaty of Madrid between Spain and England, settling the 
boundaries of their respective territories on the basis of pos- 
session. 

1672. The Spaniards at St. Augustine endeavored to dislodge the 

settlers in Carolina, but were repulsed. 

1673. War having broken out between England and Holland, the 
Dutch captured New York and received the submission of that 
colony, of Albany and New Jersey. In the peace of 1674 
these places were restored to England. 

The grant to lord Culpepper was converted to a lease for thirty- 
one years. 
1675. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to secure 
the land west of the Connecticut by force of arms, but was 
foiled by the energy of the colonists. 

1675-1676. King Philip's War. 

This was the most extensive combination which the natives 
had formed against the foreign invaders. King Philip was the son 
of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoags. He lived at Mount 
Hope, near Fall River, Mass. He formed a league comprising nearly 
all the Indians from Maine to Connecticut. War broke out in June. 

1675. and raged with peculiar violence in Massachusetts. Deerfield 
burnt (Sept. 1). Attack on Hadley (Sept. 1) repulsed by Goffe, 
one of the judges of Charles I. (?). In the fall (Sept.-Oct.) the 
United Colonies took the war upon themselves and raised 2,000 troops. 
Capture of the fort of the Narragansetts by Winslow (Dec. 19). 
Assaults more or less severe on Warwick, Lancaster, Medfield, 
Weymouth, Groton, Rehoboth, Providence, Wrentham, Sudbury, Scituate, 
Bridgewater, Plymouth, Hatfield, and other towns (1676, Jan.-June). 
Defeat of the Indians near Deerfield (May 19, Fall Fight). Surprise 
of Philip by captain Church ; capture of his wife and son (the latter 
was sold into slavery), Aug. 2. Philip shot (Aug. 12). 

1676. Rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia. Jamestown burnt. 

The rebellion came to an end with the sudden death of Bacon. 
In the following year royal troops arrived to repress the rebel- 
lion, but found all quiet. 
New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. East Jer- 
sey was governed by Carteret; "West Jersey was held by the 
duke of York. (Hence, " the Jerseys.") 

1677. The dispute between Massachusetts and the heirs of Sir Fer- 
nando Gorges over Maine being decided in favor of the latter 
by the English courts, Massachusetts bought the province of 
Maine, which henceforward formed a part of that colony. 

1680. New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts by royal 

charter. The king appointed the president and council, and 

retained the right of annulling all acts of the legislature. 
Foundation of a new settlement in Carolina, called, like the 

first, Charlestown (the present Charleston). 
"West Jersey restored to the proprietors, the heirs of lord 

Berkeley. 

1681, March 4. Grant of Pennsylvania (the region between 41 ° 



360 Modern History. A. D. 

and 43° N. lat. running 5° west from the Delaware River) to 
William Penn. Establishment of a settlement. 

1682. Penn brought a colony to Pennsylvania (Aug.). Publication 

of a frame of government and a body of laws (April-May). 
Treaty with the Indians. Foundation of Philadelphia. 

1683. First legislative assembly in New York ; two houses. Only 
two sessions are known to have been held before the revolu- 
tion of 1688. 

1684. The troubles between Massachusetts and the crown cul- 
minated in the forfeiture of the charter. 

These troubles were of old standing, dating from the restoration 
of Charles II. The favorable reception of Goffe and Whalley, two 
" regicides," in Boston, at the opening of that monarch's reign, was 
no favorable omen ; and almost the first news received from the col- 
ony brought complaints of ill-treatment from Quakers who had suf- 
fered under the rigorous laws. In 1661 Charles sent a letter to Mas- 
sachusetts prohibiting the colony from proceeding further in the 
prosecution of imprisoned Quakers, and ordering their release ; he 
subsequently withdrew his protection. Further controversy led to 
the dispatch of agents to England. The confirmation of the char- 
ter obtained by them was conditioned in a way peculiarly aggra- 
vating to the colonists : all laws derogatory to the royal authority 
should be repealed ; the oath of allegiance should be imposed ac- 
cording to the directions of the charter ; freedom and liberty of 
conscience in the use of the Book of Common Prayer should he 
allowed ; the sacrament should not be denied to any person of 
good life and conversation ; all freeholders of competent estates and 
good character, and orthodox in religion, should be admitted to vote. 
These demands being evasively met, the king, in 1664, appointed 
commissioners (Nicolls, Carr, Cartwright, Maverick) to hear com- 
plaints and appeals in New England, and settle the peace of the 
country, who, barely touching at Boston, proceeded to the seizure of 
New Netherlands. Returning to Boston in the spring of 1665 their 
demand for a recognition of the commission was met by the excuse 
that the general court would plead his majesty's charter, whereupon 
the commission returned to England in anger. The court, however, 
acknowledged the conditional right of freeholders to vote, and agreed 
to permit the toleration of Quakers and churchmen for a time. 
A long period of controversy followed, and agents were sent back 
and forth with very little effect. In 1671 the colony was " almost 
on the brink of renouncing any dependence on the crown." The 
original causes of dispute became complicated by the controversy 
with the heirs of Gorges in regard to Maine, and by the evasion and 
disregard of the navigation laws practiced by the colony (1663). In 
1676 the royal governors were commanded to insist on strict compli- 
ance with the commercial laws, both the navigation laws, and those 
imposing duties on intercolonial trade (1672). John Leverett, gov- 
ernor of Massachusetts, refused compliance, and in 1679 the general 
court voted " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights 
and privileges of the subjects of his majesty in this colony, they not 
being represented in parliament." The agents then in London to de* 



A. d. America. 361 

fend the colony in the suit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home 
with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents 
sent to answer the complaints against the colony. Edward Randolph 
was sent over as collector of customs for Boston, where, however, he 
was sturdily opposed. The new agents giving no satisfaction, a writ 
of quo warranto was issued against the colony in 1683 ; in 1684 a suit 
of scire facias was brought and the court of chancery declared the 
charter forfeited (1684). The king appointed colonel Kirke governor 
of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Plymouth, but before 
he received* his commission Charles died, and James II. appointed 
Joseph Dudley president of New England. He took office in 1686. 

1686. Issue of a quo warranto writ against Connecticut and Carolina. 

New York deprived of an assembly and other liberties. 
Appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as president of New- 
England. He arrived at Boston Dec. 20. Randolph was 
now deputy postmaster in New England. Andros assumed 
the government of Rhode Island. Establishment of an Epis- 
copal society in Boston, for the use. of which Andros forcibly 
seized the Old South Church. 

1687. Quo warranto against Maryland. 

Oct. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the government of Connecticut 
and attempted to secure the charter, but it was carried oft" 
from the hall of assemblv and hidden in the famous Charter 
Oak. 

1688. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. New York and New 
Jersey placed under his government. Erection of King's 
Chapel, as an Episcopal church, in Boston. 

1689. On the receipt of news of the revolution in England, and the 
landing of William of Orange, Sir Edmund Andros was 
seized in Boston (April 18) and thrown into prison. Restora- 
tion of the old government. " Council of safety of the people 
and conservation of the peace." Assembly of representatives 
at Boston. Provisional resumption of the charter ; proclama- 
tion of William and Mary. Re establishment of the former 
governments in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New 
York, Virginia and Maryland proclaimed William and 
Mary. 

1689-1697. " King William's War " with the French, 
a part of the universal war against Louis XIV. The French 
were assisted by the Canadian Indians and those of Maine, 
while the Iroquois took the war path against the French. 

1690. Surprise and destruction of Schenectady (Feb. 8), of Salmon 
Falls (March 18), and of Casco (May 17), by three bands of 
French and Indians. 

April, Seizure of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, who afterwards 
made a futile attack upon Quebec, by vote of a congress of 
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York. The 
failure imposed so large a debt on the colonies that Massa- 
chusetts was obliged to issue paper money for the first time. 

1692. New charter for Massachusetts. Sir William Phips ap- 



362 Modern History. a. d. 

pointed governor. Under this charter were included the colony 
of Plymouth, the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia and all land 
north to the St. Lawrence ; also the Elizabeth Islands, Nantasket, 
and Martha's Vineyard. The new charter gave the appoint- 
ment of the governor to the crown, and vested in him the 
right of calling, proroguing, and dissolving the general court, 
of appointing military officers and officers of justice (with the 
consent of the council), of vetoing acts of the legislature and 
appointments of civil officers made by the legislature. The 
electoral franchise was extended to all freeholders with a 
yearly income of forty shillings, and all inhabitants having 
| personal property to the amount of £40. Religious liberty 

was secured to all except Papists. 

1692, Feb. Commencement of the Salem witchcraft frenzy. Be- 

fore October twenty persons were executed. 
Construction of Fort William Henry at Pemaquid in Maine by 

Sir William Phips. 
Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed to retain their 

charters. 
Charter of the " College of William and Mary " in Vi^ 

ginia. 
Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of Virginia and Mary^ 

land. 

1693. Government of Pennsylvania taken from Penn by the crown. 
An English expedition against Canada was planned but failed 
of execution. 1694. Penn reinstated. 

Fletcher, governor of New York (and now of Pennsylvania), 
having been entrusted with the command of the militia of 
Connecticut, went to Hartford Oct. 26 to assert his authority, 
but was repulsed by the assembly, and by Wadsworth, senior 
captain of the militia. 

French expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois. 

1696. Capture of the fort at Pemaquid by the French under Iberville. 
An expedition of count Frontenac against the Iroquois resulted 
in little more than the destruction of their harvests. 

1697. The Peace of Ryswick (p. 371) prevented the exe- 
cution of a French attack upon Newfoundland. Restoration of 
conquests by both combatants. 

Third expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois, with little 
effect. 

1699. The French settled in Louisiana. The French claimed control 
of the fisheries on the north coast, and of the territory from 
the Kennebec eastward. 

Foundation of a Scotch settlement at Darien in the hope of 
acquiring great wealth by the command of commercial transit 
(Paterson). The first expedition (1,200 men, besides women 
and children) perished from starvation, or returned to Scot- 
land ; the second was broken up by the Spaniards who con* 
sidered the settlement a breach of the treaty of Ryswick. 

1700. Iberville took possession of the Mississippi for France. 

1701. William Penn gave a new charter to Pennsylvania. 



A-. d. America, 363 

1701. Foundation of Yale College at New Haven in Connecticut. 

1702. Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts. Quarrel with 
the general court over the proposed salaries to be paid the 
governor, lieutenant-governor, etc. 

An expedition projected by governor Moore of Carolina 
against St. Augustine resulted in failure. The debt thus in- 
curred was discharged by an issue of paper money. 

1702-1713. "Queen Anne's War " with the French. 

1703. Pennsylvania province separated from the territories, or lower 
counties {Delaware) ; separate assemblies. 

1704. Deerfield in Massachusetts destroyed by French and In- 

dians. This was avenged by an expedition under colonel 
Church which ravaged the French settlements on the east 
coast of New England. 
Establishment of the Church of England in Carolina. The 
complaints of dissenters against some details of ecclesiastical 
administration led to the issue of a quo warranto against 
the colony, but nothing came of the matter. 

1706. Invasion of Carolina by the French and Spanish in assertion 
of the Spanish claims to that country as a part of Florida. 
They were repulsed and defeated on land and sea with great 
loss by William Rhett. 

1707. New England sent an expedition against Port Royal, which 
returned without effecting its capture. 

1708. Surprise of Haverhill by French and Indians. 

1709. An expedition was planned against Canada and Acadia to 

which the colonies were to contribute 2,700 men. The project 
was abandoned by the English government after the men had 
been raised, and Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey 
were obliged to issue paper money to cancel their debts. 

1710. Capture of Port Royal by a fleet from England. Change of 

the name of the city to Annapolis. 

1711. An expedition against Canada numbering 68 sail and 6,463 sol- 

diers, largely raised by the colonies, met with disaster and was 
abandoned. 

1712. A massacre of colonists in Carolina by the Tuscaroras and other 

tribes was followed by the dispatch of Barnwell against the 
Indians. After a difficult march he succeeded in almost anni- 
hilating the Tuscaroras, many of whom fled to the Iroquois. 

1713. Treaty of Utrecht, between Great Britain and 
France (p. 393). Cession of Hudson Bay and Straits, 
of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and St. Christopher (in 
the "West Indies) to England. 

French settlements and discoveries. 

In the earlier part of the century the French had established a 
elaim to Canada and Acadia, extending to the Kennebec in Maine, 
although the English claimed as far as the Penobscot. From this 



364 Modern History. A. D« 

vantage ground they extended their discoveries south and west. Jes- 
uit missionaries labored among the Hurons in the country between 
lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron, planted the missions of St. Mary 
(1668) and Michillimachinac, died with their flocks when the undying 
enmity of the Iroquois annihilated the Hurons (Brebceuf, Lallemont), 
or sought torture and death at the hands of the Five Nations (Isaac 
Jogues, 1640-1654). 
1656. Acadia and Nova Scotia granted to St. Etienne and others by 

Cromwell. 1 
1656-1658. French colony in western New York, soon broken up. 
1659. Francois de Laval, bishop of New France. 
1662. The hundred associates of Quebec reconsigned their rights to 

the king, who soon after granted New France to the French 

West India Company. 

1665. Courcelles, governor of New France. The colony was more 
than doubled by the transportation of many emigrants from 
France. 

1666. Expedition of Tracy and Courcelles against the Mohawks. 
1666. Allouez founded the mission of St. Esprit on the southern shore 

of lake Superior. 
1668. The peace of Breda ended the war between England and 
France which had broken out in 1666. England restored Aca- 
dia to France, and obtained from France Antigua, Montser- 
rat, and St. Christopher. This was followed by a peace between 
the French and the Five Nations. In this year 
Foundation of Sault Ste. Marie, at the entrance of lake Superior 
by Dablon and Marquette. 

1672. Tour of Allouez and Dablon in Wisconsin and Illinois. 

1673. Discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette and Joliet (June 
17) who descended the stream for an uncertain distance. 

Count Frontenac, governor of Canada, completed a fort at On- 
tario called after himself. Construction of a fort at Michilli- 
machinac. 

1678. Robert . Cavalier de La Salle began his career of discovery in 
the great west. Launching in the Niagara, the Griffin, a ves- 
sel of forty-five tons, the first ever seen on the great lakes, he 
sailed Aug. 7, 1679. He passed through lakes Erie, Huron, 
and Michigan, and landed at the extreme southern end of the 
latter lake in October. He built a fort on the St. Joseph and 
crossed the portage to the Illinois. Not hearing from the 
Griffin he returned on foot to Canada. Obtaining fresh sup- 
plies he retraced his route to the Illinois only to find the fort 
which he had there erected deserted. Again he returned to 
Canada ; again he obtained aid, and again undertook his enter- 
prise. 

1680. Discovery of the Mississippi by Hennepin, a priest in the com- 
pany of La Salle. He ascended the river to 46° N., but the 
claim which he later advanced that he had explored the Mis- 
sissippi to the sea is probably false. 

1 The southern boundary of Acadia in the grant of Henry IV., 1630, was 
40° N. ; the southwestern limit of Nova Scotia in the grant of James I... 1621, 
*ras the river St. Croix. Holmes, Annals, I. 307, note 4. 



a. d. America. 365 

1682. La Salle, reaching the Mississippi by way of the St. Joseph 
and the Illinois, descended the great river to the sea and took 
possession of its valley for Louis XIV., April 9, under the 
name of Louisiana. 

1684. Expedition of De la Barre against the Iroquois, which failed of 
success. 
La Salle having announced his discovery in France was sent out 
at the head of four vessels and a number of settlers to estab- 
lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Contention be- 
tween La Salle and the commander of the vessels, who was 
jealous of the discoverer, resulted in disaster. The squadron 
missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda 
Bay (St. Louis), four hundred miles to the west. Here La 
Salle built a fort, but privation and disease soon greatly re- 
ducing the numbers of the colony he undertook to go on 
foot to Canada for relief. On this expedition 

1687. La Salle was shot by one of his own men. The settlement of 

Mar. 19. St. Louis soon perished. 

1687. Expedition of De Denonville against the Senecas. At this time 
there were about 11,000 persons in New France. 

1689-1697. War of William and Mary, see p. 361. 

Expeditions of Frontenac against the Iroquois (1693, 1696, 
1697). 

1699. The French and the English both attempted to found a col- 
ony in Louisiana. The French colony was sent out by Louis 
XIV. under Lemoine aV Iberville, who entered the Mississippi 
March 2, and also founded a colony at Biloxi. The English 
attempt was made by Coxe, a claimant of the old grant of 
Carolana, who entered the Mississippi, but, finding himself an- 
ticipated, retired (Detour aux Anglais). 

1700. An expedition from Biloxi ascended to the falls of St. An- 
thony, in search of gold. 

Iberville returning from France took possession of Louisiana 
anew for the crown. Erection of a fort. 
Foundation of Kashas kia in Illinois. 
Foundation of Cahokia in Illinois. Fort at Detroit (1701). 

J.702-13. Queen Anne's -war, see p. 363. 

Iberville brought new settlers from France and transferred the 
colony of Biloxi to Mobile in Alabama. Iberville f 1706. 

1705. Foundation of Vincennes in Indiana. 

1712. Grant to Sieur Antoine Crozat of the whole commerce of fif- 
teen years of all the " king's lands in North America lying be- 
tween New France on the north, Carolina on the east, and New 
Mexico on the west, down to the gulf of Florida • by the name 
of Louisiana ." (See p. ^17.') 

§ 2. FRANCE. {Seep. 826.) 

1643-1715. Louis XIV. (five years old), 

under the guardianship of his mother, Anne, daughter of 
Philip III., king of Spain, called by the French Anne of Austria, i. e, 



366 Modern History. A. IX 

of Hapsburg. The government, even after Louis' arrival at ma- 
jority, was conducted by cardinal Mazarin. 

1648-1653. Disturbances of the Fronde (cardinal Retz; prince of 
Conde ' • resistance of the parliament of Paris), the last at- 
tempt of the French nobility to oppose the court by armed resist- 
ance. Conde, at first loyal, afterwards engaged against the court, 
fought a battle with the royal troops under (Henri de la Tour d'Au- 
vergne, vicomte de) Turenne, in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, and took 
refuge in Spain. The first conspiracy, the old Fronde, ended in 1649, 
with the second treaty of Ruel • the second conspiracy, the new 
Fronde, which involved treasonable correspondence with Spain, failed 
in 1650. A union of the two was crushed in 1653. ( Gaston of Orleans, 
and his daughter, "Mademoiselle.") 
1648. Acquisitions of France in the Peace of Westphalia, p. 316. 

The war with Spain, which sprang up during the Thirty Years' 
War (victory of Conde' at Rocroy, May 18, 1643 ; alliance with Eng- 
land, 1657 ; Cromwell sent 8,000 men of his army to the assistance of 
Turenne) was continued till the 

1659o Peace of the Pyrenees: 

1. France received a part of Roussillon, Conflans, Cerdagne s 
and several towns in Artois and Flanders, Hainault and Luxembourg. 
2. The duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain, was partially reinstated 
(France received Bar, Clermont, etc., and right of passage for troops) ; 
the prince of Conde entirely reinstated. 3. Marriage between Louis 
XIV. and the infant Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. of 
Spain, who, however, renounced her claims upon her inheritance for 
herself and her issue by Louis forever, both for herself before mar- 
riage and for herself and her husband after marriage, in considera- 
tion of the payment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns by Spain. 

1661. Death of Mazarin. Personal government of 
Louis XIV. (1661-1715), absolute, arbitrary, without etats 
generaux, without regard to the remonstrances of the parliament of 
Paris {Uetat, c'est moi). Colbert, controller general of the finances, 
from 1662-1683. Reform of the finances ; mercantile system. Con- 
struction of a fleet of war. Louvois, minister of war, 1666-1691. 
Quarrel for precedence in rank with Spain. Negotiations with the 
Pope concerning the privileges of French ambassadors at Rome. 
The ambition of Louis for fame, and his desire for increase of terri- 
tory were the causes of the following wars, in which these generals 
took part : Turenne, Conde', Luxembourg, Catinat, Villars, Vendome, 
Vauban (inventor of the modern system of military defense). 

1667-1668. First war of conquest (war of devolution) on 

account of the Spanish Netherlands. 

Cause : After the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, 

Louis laid claim to the Spanish possessions in the Belgian provinces 

{Brabant, Flanders, etc.), on the ground that, being the personal estates 



A. d. France. 367 

of the royal family of Spain, their descent ought to be regulated by 
the local " droit de devolution," a principle in private law, whereby in 
the event of a dissolution of a marriage by death, the survivor enjoyed 
the usufruct only of the property, the ownership being vested in the 
children, whence it followed that daughters of a first marriage inher- 
ited before sons of a second marriage. 1 The renunciation of her 
heritage which his wife had made was, Louis claimed, invalid, since 
the stipulated dowry had never been paid. 

1667. Turenne conquered a part of Flanders and Hainault. 

By the exertions of Jan de Witt, pensioner of Holland, and Sir 

1668. William Temple, England, Holland, and Sweden, concluded the 
Jan. 23. Triple Alliance, which induced Louis, after Conde had, 

with great rapidity, occupied the defenseless free county of 
Burgundy (Franche Comte) to sign the 

1668. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

May 2. Louis restored Franche- Comte' (the fortresses having been 
dismantled) to Spain, in return for which he received twelve 
fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands, among 
others, Lille, Tournay, and Oudenarde. The question of the succession 
was not settled, but deferred. 

1672-1678. Second war of conquest (against Holland). 
The course of Holland in these transactions had inflamed the hatred 
of Louis against her, a hatred made still stronger by the refuge given 
by the provinces to political writers who annoyed him with their abus- 
ive publications. To gain his purpose, the destruction or the humilia- 
tion of Holland, Louis secured the disruption of the Triple Alliance 
by a 

1670. Private treaty with Charles II. of England (p. 380), and be- 
1672. tween France and Sweden. Subsidy treaties with Cologne and 

Munster ; 20,000 Germans fought for Louis in the following 

war. 

1672. Passage of the Rhine. Rapid and easy conquest of southern 
Holland by Turenne, Conde, and the king, at the head of 100,000 

men. The brothers De Witt, the leaders of the aristocratic republican 
party in Holland, were killed during a popular outbreak (Aug. 27), 
and William III. of Orange was placed at the head of the state. The 
opening of the sluices saved the province of Holland, and the city of 
Amsterdam. Alliance of Holland with Frederic William, elector of 
Brandenburg (1640-1688), afterwards joined by the emperor and by 
Spain. 

1673. Frederic William concluded the separate peace of Vossem (not 
far from Louvaine), in which he retained his possessions in 
Cleves, except Wesel and Rees. 

1674. Declaration of war by the empire. 

1 "Secundam antiquas Meklin. constitutiones et fere per universam Braban- 
tiam superstes altero conjugo mortuo usufructuarius redditur suorum bonarum, 
eorum proprietate statim ad liberos proximos vel qui hseredes futuri sunt devo* 
luta." Comm. to the customs of Mechlin. Ranke, Franz. Gesch. III., 226. 



368 Modern History. Jl. d. 

Peace between England and Holland. 
Louis XIV. conquered Franche-Comte in person ; Conde' fought 
against Orange (drawn battle at Senef) in the Netherlands. Brilliant 
campaign of Turenne on the upper Rhine (first ravaging of the palat- 
inate) against Montecuculi, the imperial general, and the elector of 
Brandenburg. The latter, recalled by the inroad of the Swedish allies 
of Louis XIV. into his lands, defeated the Swedes in the 

1675. Battle of Fehrbellin. In the same year Turenne fell at 
June 18. Sasbach, in Baden (July 27). The French retreated across 

the Rhine. 

1676. Naval successes in the Mediterranean against the Dutch and 
Spanish. Death of De Ruyter. 

1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of 
the duke of York. 

1678. Surprise and capture of Ghent and Ypres by the French. 
Negotiations with each combatant, which had been for some 
time in progress, resulted in the 

1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen. 

Holland and France (Aug. 10, 1678) ; Spain and France 
(Sept. 17, 1678) ; the Emperor, with France and Sweden (Feb.S, 
1679) ; Holland with Sweden (Oct. 12, 1679). At Fontainebleau, 
France and Denmark (Sept. 2, 1679). At Lund, Denmark and 
Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 

1. Holland received its whole territory back, upon condition of 
preserving neutrality. 2. Spain ceded to France, Franche-Comte, 
and on the northeast frontier, Valenciennes, Cambray, and the Cam- 
bresis, Aire, Poperingen, St. Omer, Ypres, Conde, Bouchain, Maubeuge, 
and other towns ; France ceded to Spain, Charleroi, Binche, Oude- 
narde, Ath, Courtray, Limburg, Ghent, Waes, etc. ; and in Cata- 
lonia, Puycerda. 3. The Emperor ceded to France Freiburg in the 
Breisgau; France gave up the right of garrison in Philippsburg ; the 
duke of Lorraine was to be restored to his duchy, but on such con- 
ditions that he refused to accept them. 

Louis XIV. forced the elector of Brandenburg to conclude the 

1679. Peace of St. G-ermain-en-Laye, whereby he surrendered to 

Sweden nearly all of his conquests in Pommerania, in return 
for which he received only the reversion of the principality of East 
Friesland, which became Prussian in 1744, and a small indemnifica- 
tion (exclamation of the elector : Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus 
ultor, Virg. Mn. IV. 625). 

Louis " the Great " at the height of his power. His boundless am- 
bition stimulated by the weakness of the empire led him to establish 
the 

1680-1683. Chambers of Reunion at Metz, Breisach, Be- 
sancon, and Tournay. 
These were French courts of claims with power to investigate and 
decide what dependencies had at any time belonged to the territories 
and towns which had been ceded to France by the last four treaties 
of peace. The king executed with his troops the decisions of his tri- 



A. d. France. 369 

bunals, thus adding to violence in time of peace, the scoff of a legal 
formality. Saarbriick, Luxembourg, Deuxponts {Zweibrucken), and 
many other towns were thus annexed to France. 
1681, Oct. Capture of Strasburg by treachery. 

1683. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, occupation of Luxembourg, 
and seizure of Trier (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied 

by France. To the weakness of the empire, the wars with the Turks, 
and the general confusion of European relations since the peace of 
Nimwegen, it is to be attributed that these outrageous aggressions 
were met by nothing more than empty protests, and that 

1684. A truce for twenty years was concluded at Regensburg between 

Louis and the emperor and the empire, whereby he retained 
everything he had obtained by reunion up to Aug. 1, 1681, including 
Strasburg. 

Louis' mistresses : Louise de la Valliere ; Madame de Montespan ; 
Madame de Maintenon (Francoise d'Aubigne'), a narrow bigot whose 
influence over the king was boundless. Maria Theresa died 1683. 
Louis privately married to Madame de Maintenon. War upon 
heresy. The dragonnades in Languedoc. Wholesale conversions. 

1685. Oct. 18. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
The exercise of the reformed religion in France was forbid- 
den, children were to be educated in the Catholic faith, emigration 
was prohibited. In spite of this more than 50,000 families, including 
military leaders (Schomberg), men of letters, and the best part of 
the artificers of France, made their way to foreign countries. Their 
loss was a blow to the industry of the country, which hastened the 
approach of the revolution. The exiles found welcome in Holland, 
England (Spital/ields), Brandenburg. The Protestants of Alsace re- 
tained the freedom of worship which had been secured to them. 

1689-1697. Third War. (War concerning the succession 
of the palatinate.) 
Cause : After the extinction of the male line of the electors 
palatine in the person of the elector Charles (f 1685), whose sister 
was the wife of Louis XIV. 's brother, the duke of Orleans, the king 
laid claim to the allodial lands of the family, a claim which he soon 
extended to the greater portion of the country. Another ground for 

Frederic V. (king of Bohemia), 
f 1632. 
J 

I I 

Sophia m. Charles Louis, 

Ernest Augustus, t 1680. 

of Hanover. 



George I. Charles, Charlotte Elizabeth, 

•f England. t 1685. m. Philip, duke of 

without Orleans, brother of 

male issue. Louis XIV. 
24 



370 Modem History. A. d. 

war was found in the quarrel over the election of the archbishop of 
Cologne, which Louis was resolved to secure for Von Furstenburg, 
bishop of Strasburg, in place of prince Clement of Bavaria (1688). 
Meantime the unfavorable impression produced throughout Protes- 
tant Europe by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had contributed 
to the success of the plans of William of Orange, and 
1686. The League of Augsburg, directed against France, was signed 
July 9. by the Emperor, the kings of Sweden and Spain, the electors 
of Bavaria, of Saxony, and the palatinate. In 1688 occurred 
the revolution in England which placed William of Orange on the 
throne of that country, and added a powerful kingdom to the new 
foes of Louis. The exiled James II. took refuge with the French 
monarch (court at St. Germain, p. 385). 

1688. Invasion and frightful devastation of the Palatinate, by 
Oct. order of Louvois, executed by Melac {Heidelberg, Mannheim, 

Speier, Worms, and the whole country as far as the borders of 
Alsace ravaged and burnt). The military successes of the French on 
the Rhine were unimportant, especially after 1693, when prince Louis 
of Bavaria assumed the chief command against them. 

1689. The Grand Alliance, between the powers who had joined the 
League of Augsburg and England and Holland (Savoy had 

joined the league in 1687). The principal scene of war was in the 
Netherlands. 

1690. June 30. Battle of Fleurus, defeat of the prince of Waldeck by 

Louis' general, Marshal Luxembourg. 
The French expedition to Ireland in aid of James had but a 
temporary success. 

1690, July 1. Victory of William III. over the adherents of James 
II. at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (p. 387). 
French successes in Piedmont ; Catinat reduced Savoy ; de- 
feat of Victor Amadeus at Staffarda. 

1692, May. Defeat of the French fleet under Tourville by the Eng- 
lish and Dutch at Cape La Hogue. The mastery of the sea 
passed from the French to the English. Death of Louvois. 

1692, July 24. Battle of Steinkirk (Steenkerken) in Hainault. 
Victory of Luxembourg over William III. Fall of Namur. 
(June). 

1693, July 29. Battle of Neerwinden. Victory of Luxembourg 

over William III., who in spite of his many defeats still kept 

the field. 
In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the duke of Savoy at Mar- 
saglia. Rise of prince Eugene (" Eugenio von Savoye," " the little 
abbe," son of Maurice of Savoy-Carignan, count of Soissons and 
Olympia Mancini, niece of Mazarin, b. 1663 at Paris ; refused a 
commission by Louis XIV., he entered the Austrian service in 1683 ; 
died April 21, 1736). On June 30, the English fleet was defeated at 
Lagos Bay by Tourville. Failure of the English attack upon Brest 
(1694), not by the treachery of Marlborough. Death of Luxem- 
bourg (Jan. 1696) ; he was succeeded by the incapable Villeroy. 



A. D. France. 371 

1695, Sept. Recapture of Namur by William III. 

1696, May 30. Separate Peace with Savoy at Turin. All con- 

quests were restored to the duke (Pignerol and Casale), and 
his daughter married Louis' grandson, the duke of Burgundy. 
Savoy promised to remain neutral. 

1697, Peace of Ryswick, a village near the Hague. Treaty 
Sept. 30. between France, England, Spain, and Holland. 

1. Confirmation of the separate peace with Savoy. 2. Restoration 
of conquests between France and England and Holland ; William 
III. acknowledged as king of England, and Anne, as his successor, 
Louis promising not to help his enemies. 3. It was agreed that the 
chief fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands should be garrisoned 
with Dutch troops as a barrier between France and Holland. 4. 
France restored to Spain all places which had been " reunited " since 
the peace of Nimwegen, with the exception of eighty-two places, and 
all conquests. 5. Holland restored Pondicherri in India to the 
French East India Company and received commercial privileges in 
return. 

1697, Oct. 30. Treaty between France and the emperor (and em- 
pire.) 

1. France ceded all the "reunions " except Alsace, which hencefor- 
ward was lost to the empire. 2. Strasburg was ceded to France. 
3. France ceded Freiburg and Breisach to the emperor, and Phillips- 
burg to the empire. 4. The duchy of Zweibriicken was restored to the 
king of Sweden, as count palatine of the Rhine. 5. Lorraine was re- 
stored to duke Leopold (excepting Saarlouis). 6. The claims of car- 
dinal Fiirstenburg to the archbishopric of Cologne were disavowed. 
7. The Rhine was made free. 

Brilliant period of French literature in the age of Louis XIV. 
Corneille (1606-1684) ; Racine (1639-1699) ; Moliere (Jean Baptiste 
Poquelin, 1622-1673) ; La Fontaine (1621-1695) ; Boileau (1636- 
1711) ; Bossuet (1627-1704) ; Flechier (f 1710) ; Fenelon (Francois de 
Salignac de Lamothe, 1651-1715). 

Louis' court at Versailles (after 1680) was the pattern for all the 
other courts of Europe. Buildings, luxury, mistresses (La Valliere, 
Montespan, Fontange). After the death of " his wife, Maria Theresa of 
Spain (1683), Louis made a secret marriage with Franroise d'Aubigne, 
widow of the poet Scarron (1610-1660), whom he made Marquise de 
Maintenon. (See pp. 390, ^5.) 

§ 3. GERMANY. (Seep. 317.) 

1658-1705. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand III. 

After 1663 permanent diet at Regensburg, consisting of the 
representatives of the eight electors, the sixty-nine ecclesiastical, the 
ninety-six secular princes, and the imperial cities. [A miracle of te- 
dious legislation, often degenerating into a squabble for precedence. 
u A bladeless knife without a handle."] Corpus Catholicorum and Cor- 
pus Evangelicorum; [the corporate organizations of the Catholic and 
the evangelical estates, the latter being the most important. This or- 



372 Modern History. A. D. 

ganization of the Protestant estates had existed, in fact, since the latter 
half of the sixteenth century, but it was legally recognized in the 
Peace of Westphalia, where it was decreed that in the diet matters 
relating to religion and the church should not be decided by a majority, 
but should be settled by conference and agreement between the Cath- 
olic and Protestant estates, as organized corporations.] 
1661-1664. First war with the Turks ; caused by a dispute, con- 
cerning the election of a prince in Transylvania. 
The Turkish successes at last enabled the emperor to obtain help 
from the empire and from the French. Victory of the imperial gen^ 
eral Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard on the Raab (1664). 
A truce for twenty years, favorable to the Turks, was, nevertheless* 
concluded. 

War of the empire against Louis XIV. (see p. 367). 
1666. Settlement of the contested succession of Cleve-Jlilich : 
Cleve, Mark, Ravenstein, and half of Ravensberg given to Bran- 
denburg ; afterwards, the whole of Ravensberg instead of Ra • 
venstein. 
1682-1699. Second war with the Turks. Conspiracy of Hun- 
garian magnates detected and punished. Count Tolcoly ap- 
pealed to the Turks for aid. Invasion of Hungary by the 
Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha and 

1683. Siege of Vienna. 

Heroic defense conducted by Riidiger von Stahremberg. Suc- 
cessful relief by a united German and Polish army under Charles of 
Lorraine and John Sobieski, king of Poland. Henceforward active 
participation of the German princes in the war, assisted by Venice. 
After the victory of Charles of Lorraine over the Turks at Mohacs 
(pron. Mohatch) Aug. 12, 1687, the diet at Pressburg conferred the 
hereditary succession to the throne of Hungary upon the male line 
of Austria. The war continued with varying fortune until Prince 
Eugene, by the 

1697. Victory o/Zenta, brought about the 
1699, Jan. 26. Peace of Carlowitz : 

1. The Porte received the Banat - Temesvar ; Austria, the rest of 

Hungary and Transylvania. 

2. Venice received Morea (the Peloponnesus, p. 416). 

Toward the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth 
century, several German princes obtained an elevation in rank. 
1692. 1. Hanover became the ninth electorate. 
1697. 2. The elector of Saxony (Augustus II.), after the death of 
John Sobieski, became king of Poland, and adopted the Cath- 
olic faith. 
3. Frederic III., elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), son of the 
Great Elector, assumed, with the consent of the emperor, the 
1701. title of king in Prussia (Frederic I.) and crowned himself at 
Jan. 18. Konigsberg. (See p. 897.) 



A. D. The North and East. 373 

§ 4. THE NORTH AND EAST. 

Sweden. (See p. 352.) 

Sweden, whose possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, 
was the first power of the North after the Thirty-Years' War. 
1654-1718 (1751). Dynasty of the counts palatine of 
Zweibrucken (p. 352). 

1654-1660. Charles X., G-ustavus, undertook a war with Poland, 
because John Casimir (of the house of Vasa) refused to ac- 
knowledge him. He invaded Livonia and Poland, captured Warsaw 
and drove John Casimir into Silesia. Frederic William, elector of Bran- 
denburg, who had come with an army to the defense of East Prussia, 
was obliged, by the treaty of Konigsberg (1656) to receive his duchy 
in fee from Sweden, as he had heretofore held it from Poland. He 
received also the bishopric of Ermeland. Uprising in Poland against 
the Swedes. Charles Gustavus and the elector Frederic William, who 
had become a still closer ally by the treaty of Marienburg, gained the 
1656. Three days' battle of Warsaw over the Poles. In order to 
further secure for himself the aid of the elector of Brandenburg, 
Charles Gustavus granted him, in the treaty of Labiau (1656) the sov- 
ereignty over East Prussia and Ermeland. Nevertheless, Russia, Den- 
mark and the emperor, declared war upon Sweden, and they were soon 
joined by the elector of Brandenburg, who received from Poland in 
the treaty of Wehlau (1657) recognition of his sovereignty over East 
Prussia, but not over Ermeland, for which he received compensation 
elsewhere. The Swedes were soon driven out of Poland, retaining a 
hold on Polish Prussia only. Charles Gustavus attacked Denmark 
which he soon conquered (crossing of the frozen Belt, Jan. 1658), 
and compelled to make important cessions in the peace of Roesldld 
(1658). In the same year Charles Gustavus invaded Denmark a sec- 
ond time, purposing the annihilation of the monarchy. Courageous 
defense of Copenhagen. The Danes received assistance from all 
sides. Raise of the siege. Sudden death of Charles Gustavus (1660), 
Under his minor son 
1660-1697. Charles XI., the 

1660. Peace of Oliva (monastery near Danzig) was con- 
cluded with Poland. 

John Casimir abandoned his claims upon the throne of Sweden, as 
well as upon Livonia and Esthonia. Restoration of the duke of Cur- 
land. The sovereignty of Prussia ratified by Sweden and Poland. 

This was followed immediately by the 
Peace of Copenhagen with Denmark, which surrendered forever 
the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, which had been 
ceded already by the peace of Roeskild, but retained Drontheim and 
Bornholm. 

Peace between Sweden and Russia at Kardis (1661) ; reciprocal 
surrender of conquests. 



374 Modern History. A. D, 

Wai- between Sweden, as the ally of France, and Brandenburg ; 
battle of Fehrbellin, p. 368; peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, p. 368. 

(See pp. 894, 409.) 
Denmark. (See p. 352.) 

Immediately after the peace (1660) the third estate (burghers), im- 
patient of the rule of the nobility, and the clergy, conferred upon the 
king, Frederic III. (1648-1670), an absolutely uncontrolled authority. 
Lex Regia. 

In the same way the Swedish estates-, weary of the over-great power 
of the royal council, conferred almost unlimited power upon king 
Charles XI., who was now of age. (See p. 409.) 

Poland. (See p. 852 ) 

In Poland, on the contrary, the royal power had become a mere 
shadow at this period, and the state was, in fact, a republic of nobles. 
The diet, composed of the senate (bishops, woiwods, castellanes), and 
the elected representatives from the country (representatives of the 
nobility) exercised every function of government. The liberum veto, 
that is, the right of each individual member of the diet to defeat a 
resolution by his protest, and thus to break up the diet, led to bribery, 
violence, and, in the end, to absolute anarchy. After the abdication 
of John Casimir (1668), there followed a bloody contest for the throne ; 
then John Sobieski (1674r-1696), the liberator of Vienna (p. 372), and 
finally Augustus II. of Saxony (1697-1733), uuder whom the war with 
the Turks was ended by the Peace of Carlowitz (p. 372). 

(See pp. 897, 410.) 
Russia. (Seep. 3o8.) 

Under the house of Romanow Russia developed in strength and 
influence. The son of the founder of the dynasty, Alexis, reconquered 
Little (White) Russia from Poland, and began to introduce European 
civilization into Russia. After the death of his eldest son, Feodor 
(1682), his brothers, Ivan and Peter (son of the Czar's second wife, 
Natalia Narischkin), proclaimed Czars under the guardianship of their 
elder sister, Sophia, by the Strelitzes, the noble body-guard of the 
emperor. Peter in Preobaschensk, under the guidance of Lefort, a 
Swiss. Playing soldiers : origin of the later guard. His half-sister, 
Sophia, endeavored to exclude him from the throne, but was sent to 
a cloister by Peter (1689). 

1689-1725. Peter I., the Great, 

reigned as sole monarch, his weak minded brother, Ivan, con- 
tinuing until his death (1696) without the least authority. 
Peter began his reforms with the assistance of Gordon, a Scot, and 
Lefort. Conquest of Azoff (1696). After cruelly punishing a revolt 
of the Strelitzes, Peter undertook his first journey (1697-1698), for his 
instruction, through Germany to Holland, where he worked as a ship's 
carpenter in Saardam (Zaandam), and afterwards to England (en- 
gagement of foreign artisans, artists, and military officers). Peter 
intended to visit Italy, but was recalled by a new revolt of the 



A. d. England. 375 

Strelitzes (1698). Bloody punishment ; dissolution of the Strelitzes, 
who were replaced by an army after the European pattern (1699). 
1699. Peace with the Turks at Carlowitz. Acquisition of Azoff. 

{See pp. 394, 410.) 
§ 5. ENGLAND. {Seep. 351.) 

1649-1660. England a republic; the Commonwealth. 
The government was actually in the hands of the army of inde- 
pendents under Oliver Cromwell (b. at Huntingdon, April 
25, 1599, where he met prince Charles, 1603 ; admitted to 
Sidney-Sussex College, 1616 ; death of his father, 1617 ; mar- 
ried Elizabeth Bourchier, 1620 ; M. P. for Huntingdon, 1628 ; 
his first speech, Feb. 1629 ; removed to St. Ives, 1631 ; re- 
moved to Ely, 1636 ; affair of Bedford-Level, 1638 ; M. P. for 
Cambridge, 1640 ; removed to London ; resided at the Cock- 
pit [Westminster], 1650 ; at Whitehall, 1654 ; died Sept. 3, 
1658. Children : Oliver, Richard, b. 1626 ; abdicated May 25, 
1659 ; died, 1712 ; Henry, b. 1628 ; Bridget, married Ireton, 
1646 [Fleetwood, 1651] ; Elizabeth, married Mr. Claypole ; 
died, 1658 ; Frances, married Richard Rich, grandson of War- 
wick, 1657; Mary, married lord Fauconberg), but theoretically 
the legislative department was in the hands of the Rump par- 
liament, consisting of some fifty members of the commons (in- 
dependents), while the executive was entrusted to a council of 
state numbering forty-one members (three judges, three mili- 
tary commanders, five peers, thirty members of the commons). 
Abolition of the title and office of king, and of the house of lords. 

Charles II. proclaimed in Edinburgh (Feb. 5). New great seal. 

Rising in Ireland in favor of Charles II., under the marquis of 

Ormond. Expedition of Cromwell to Ireland (Aug. 15). 

1649, Sept. 12. Storm of Drogheda ; massacre of the garrison, 

followed by the storm and massacre of Wexford. Cromwell 
returned to London, May, 1650, leaving Ireton in Ireland. The 
"rebellion" was not thoroughly put down until 1652, when 
three out of four provinces were confiscated. 

1650, Montrose landed in Scotland, was defeated at Corbiesdale 
(April 27), betrayed, captured, and executed at Edinburgh 
May 21. 

June 24. Charles II. landed in Scotland, and after taking the cov- 
enant, was proclaimed king. 

Cromwell appointed captain-general in place of Fairfax. He 
led 16,000 men to Scotland, and totally defeated the Scots 
under Leslie at the 

Sept. 3. Battle of Dunbar. 

Surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 

1651, Jan. 1. Charles II. was crowned at Scone and marched into 

England (July) at the head of the Scotch army while Crom- 
well took Perth (Aug. 2). The latter followed the king, and 
at the 
Sept. 3. Battle of Worcester 

totally defeated the royalists. Charles in disguise escaped to 
France. 



376 Modern History. A. D. 

1651, Oct. 9. First navigation act, forbidding the importation of 
goods into England except in English vessels (but goods 
might be conveyed to England in vessels belonging to the 
country producing the goods). This measure was aimed at 
the Dutch, and resulted in the 

1652, July 8-1654, April 5. Dutch War. 

Naval actions in the Chaimel ; English commanders, Blake, 
Monk ; Dutch, Van Tromp, De Ruyter. English victory in the 
Downs before the declaration of war, May. Defeat of Van 
Tromp and De Ruyter, Sept. 28 ; defeat of Blake, Nov. ; de- 
feat of Van Tromp oif Portland, Feb. 18, 1653 ; off the North 
Foreland, June 2, 3. Death of Ireton (Nov. 1651). 
Between the army and the Rump there had been growing contention 
since the death of Charles I. A new parliament was desirable, but 
the members of the Rump wished to retain their seats in any new 
parliament. The negotiations for ransom of confiscated royalist 
estates led to bribery of members. 

1652, Feb. Act of indemnity and oblivion. 
Aug. First act of settlement for Ireland. 

1653, April 20. Cromwell turned out the Rump and dissolved the 

council of state. Establishment of a new council and nom- 
ination of 

July 4. A new parliament (" Barebone's parliament," also called 
the " Little parliament "), consisting of about 140 members. 

July 31. Victory of Monk off the Texel ; death of Van Tromp. 

Sept. Second act of settlement for Ireland. 

Dec. 12. The Cromwellians in parliament resigned their powers to 
Cromwell ; an act subsequently approved by the majority. 

1653, Dec-1659, May. Protectorate. 

1653, Dec. 16-1658, Sept. 3. Cromwell Lord Protector of the 

commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. 

" The instrument of government," a written constitution. 

The executive power was vested in the lord protector, who was pro- 
vided with a council of twenty-one, which filled its own vacancies. 
A standing army of 30,000 men established ; parliament was to be 
triennial, and to consist of 460 members, and when once summoned 
could not be dissolved inside of five months. Between sessions the 
protector and council could issue ordinances with the force of laws, 
but parliament alone could grant supplies and levy taxes. 

1654, April 5. Peace with the Dutch. 

Sept. 3. New parliament. As the course of the assembly did not 
suit the protector, he ordered an exclusion of members (Sept. 
12). After voting that the office of protector should be elec- 
tive instead of hereditary the 

1655, Jan. 22. Parliament was dissolved. 

April. Blake chastised the deys of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli. 
March-May. Rising of Penruddock at Salisbury suppressed. Execu- 
tionof Penruddock. 
England divided into twelve military districts, each under a 



A. d. England. 377 

major-general, with a force supported by a tax of ten per 
cent, on royalist estates. 
May. Penn and Venables, sent to make reprisals in the Spanish West 
Indies, captured Jamaica. 

1655, Oct. Pacification of Pinerolo concluded with France. The 

duke of Savoy to stop the persecution of the Vaudois. Charles 

to be expelled from France. 
Nov. Anglican clergymen forbidden to teach or preach. Priests 

ordered out of the kingdom. Censorship of the press. 
1656-1659. War with Spain. 
Sept. 9. Capture of Spanish treasure ships off Cadiz. 

1656, Sept. 17-1658, Feb. 4. Cromwell's third parliament. 
Another exclusion of members. 

Oct. Reduction of the power of the major-generals. 

1657, Jan. Plot against the protector (" Killing no Murder "). Pun- 

ishment of Nayler. 

March-May. Humble petition and advice altering the constitu- 
tion, adopted by parliament. Establishment of a second 
house ; the council of state reduced in power ; the protector 
deprived of the right of excluding members ; fixed supply 
for the army and navy ; toleration of all Christians except 
Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. The title of king was 
offered to Cromwell but rejected by him (May 8). 

April 20. Victory of Blake off Santa Cruz. Death of Blake, Aug. 17. 

June 26. Second inauguration of Cromwell. 

1658, Jan. 20. New session of parliament, including "the other 

house." 
Feb. 4. Dissolution of Cromwell's last parliament. 
May. Siege of Dunkirk by the English and French. A Spanish 

force advancing to the relief of the town was defeated in the 
June 4. Battle of the Dunes, which was followed by the surrender 

of Dunkirk (June 17). In the peace of the Pyrenees (1659, 

p. 366), England received this town. 

Sept. 3. Death of Oliver Cromwell. 

1658, Sept. 3-1659, May 25. Richard Cromwell lord pro- 
tector. 

1659, Jan. 27. A new parliament met, and was soon involved in a 

dispute with the army, which induced Richard to 

April 22. Dissolve the parliament ("Humble representation and 
advice of the officers"). 

May 7. The Rump parliament reassembled under Lenthall as 
speaker. 

May 25. Richard Cromwell resigned the protectorate. 

Aug. Insurrection of Booth crushed at Winnington Bridge (Lam- 
bert). 

Oct. 13. Expulsion of the Rump by the army (Lambert). Appoint- 
ment of a military committee of safety. This assertion of 
authority did not meet with approval even within the army. 

Dec. 26. Restoration of the Rump. Monk, who was in Scotland, 
led his army to London and assumed control of affairs (Feb. 
3, 1660). Monk captain-general. 



378 Modern History. A. d. 

1660, Feb. 21. Restoration of members excluded in 1648. Re-estab- 
lishment of the Long Parliament. 

March 16. Final dissolution of the Long Parliament. 1 

1660, Apr. 14. Declaration of Breda. Charles proclaimed am- 
nesty to all not especially excepted by parliament, promised 
liberty of religious belief, and the settlement of confiscated 
estates in the hands of the possessors. 

1660, Apr. 25-Dec. 29. Convention Parliament ; chosen without 
restrictions and numbering 556 members. The parliament re- 
ceived the declaration of Breda favorably and returned a loyal 
answer to the king (May 1). 

May 8. Charles proclaimed king ; on May 29 he entered London. 

1660-1685. Charles II., 

extravagant, dissipated, careless of the duties of his position. 
Charles's restoration was hailed by an outburst of loyalty which en- 
abled him to neglect many of the promises of the declaration of Breda. 
The king's brother, James, duke of York, appointed lord high admiral 
and warden of the Cinque ports ; Monk captain-general ; Sir Edward 
Hyde (earl of Clarendon) chancellor and prime minister. 

Abolition of the feudal rights of knight service, worship, and purvey- 
ance in consideration of a yearly income for the king of £1,200,000. 
Restoration of the bishops to their sees and to parliament. Act of in- 
demnity for all political offenses committed between Jan. 1, 1637, and 
June 24, 1660 ; the regicides were excepted from this act. All acts 
of the long parliament to which Charles I. had assented were declared 
in force. The army was disbanded (Oct.), excepting some 5,000 
men. Declaration for the settlement of Ireland. 

1660, Dec. 29. Dissolution of the Convention parliament. 

1661, Jan. Rising of the fifth monarchy men in London (Yenner). 
Bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw, disinterred and treated 

with indignity. 
Royalist parliament in Scotland. Abolition of the Covenant. 

Repeal of all enactments of preceding parliaments for the last 

twenty-eight years. 
Apr-July. Savoy Conference of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. 
Apr. 23. Coronation of Charles II. 

1661, May 8-1679, Jan. 24. New parliament. " Cavalier " or " pen- 
sion " parliament. 
Solemn league and covenant burnt. 
1661, May 27. Execution of Argyle in Scotland. 

l Recapitulation of the history of the Long Parliament : — 
1640, Nov. 3. First assembled. 
1648, Dec. 6, 7. Pride's Purge. The Rump. 
1653, April 20. The Rump turned out by Cromwell. 
1659, May 7. The Rump restored. 
1659, Oct. 13. The Rump expelled by the army. 

1659, Dec. 26. The Rump restored. 

1660, Feb. 21. Members excluded by Pride's Purge, restored. 
1660, March 16. The parliament dissolved. 



A. D. England. 379 

Nov. 20. Corporation act : all magistrates and municipal officers 
obliged to take the sacrament according to the Church of Eng- 
land, to abjure the covenant, and to take an oath declaring it 
illegal to bear arms against the king. 
James Sharpe, created archbishop of St. Andrews, attempted to 
introduce episcopacy in Scotland. 

1662, May 20. Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, 
daughter of John IV. of Portugal. 

Aug. 24. The act of uniformity (adopted May 19), went into oper- 
ation. All clergymen, fellows, and schoolmasters were required 
to assent to everything in the book of common prayer. Nearly 
2,000 (?) non-conformists lost their livings (dissenters). 
Declaration of indulgence promised. 

1662, June 14. Execution of Sir Henry Vane. 

Nov. Sale of Dunkirk to France for £400,000. Act of settlement 
for Ireland. 

1663, An insurrection of fifth monarchy men in the north was fol- 
lowed by the passage of the 

1664, May. Conventicle act, forbidding the meeting of more than 

five persons for religious worship, except in the household, or 
in accordance with the established church. 
Repeal of the triennial act (1641). 
Aug. Capture of New Amsterdam in America. 

1665, Feb. 22-1667, July 21. War with Holland. 

1665, April. The plague in London. 

June 3. Naval victory of Lowestoft over the Dutch. 

Oct. The five mile act : all who had not subscribed to the act of 
uniformity were ordered to take the oath of non-resistance, to 
swear never to undertake any alteration in church or state ; 
and those who refused were prohibited from coming within 
five miles of any incorporated town, or of any place where they 
had been settled as ministers. 

1666, Jan. 16-1667, July 21. War with Prance. 

June 1-4. Naval victory of Albermarle (Monk) over the Dutch (De 
Ruyter, DeWitt) off the North Foreland. 

Sept. 2. Great Fire of London ; lasting over a week and burning 
a region of 450 acres. The Monument. St. Paul's rebuilt by 
Sir Christopher Wren. 

Nov. 28. Battle of Pentland Hills in Scotland. Defeat of the Cov- 
enanters, who had revolted under their persecutions, by Dalziel. 

1667, June. The Dutch fleet burnt Sheerness, entered the Medway, 
and sailed to within twenty miles of London. 

July 21. Treaties of Breda between England, Holland, France, 
Denmark. England received from France, Antigua, Mont- 
serrat, English St. Christopher's ; France received Acadia. 
England and Holland adopted the status quo of May 20, 1667; 
England retaining New Amsterdam, and Holland, Surinam. It 
was agreed that goods brought down the Rhine might be trans- 
ported to England in Dutch vessels. 

Aug. Fall of Clarendon, on whom the most unpopular acts of the 



380 Modern History. A. d. 

government were fathered ; he was deprived of the great seal, 
impeached, and banished for life (died at Rouen, 1674). 
The chief officers of state, whose councils determined the course of 
government, began in this reign to be looked upon as a distinct (uncon- 
stitutional) council, although they did not, for some time to come, 
stand and fall together. 

Accession of a new ministry called the " Cabal " 1 (Clifford, Arling- 
ton, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale). 

1668, Jan. 13. The triple alliance between England, Holland, 
and Sweden negotiated by Sir William Temple and John De 
Witt as a check upon the aggressions of Louis XIV. (p. 367). 
1670, May 22. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and 
Louis XIV. negotiated by Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess 
of Orle'ans. 
Charles agreed that he and the duke of York would openly join the 
Church of Rome as soon as expedient, that he would support Louis in 
his wars with Spain and Holland. Louis promised Charles £200,000 
a year while the war lasted, and the assistance of 6,000 men in case of 
an insurrection. Louise la Querouaille, Charles's mistress, created 
duchess of Portsmouth. The duke of York at once professed his be- 
lief in Rome. 

1670. Second Conventicle act, more stringent than the first. 
1672. Charles being in want of money closed the exchequer, thus seiz- 
ing £1,200,000 which had been advanced to the government by 
bankers. A general panic followed. 
1672, March. Declaration of indulgence ; under the pretense of 
lightening the burden on non-conformists, the proclamation 
really aimed at securing toleration for papists. Parliament 
compelled the king to withdraw the indulgence in 1673. 

1672, March 17-1674, Feb. 9. War with Holland. 

Invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. Revolution in the Nether- 
lands. Murder of John and Cornelius De Witt. William of 
Orange stadtholder. 

May 28. English naval victory at Southwold Bay. 

Nov. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), lord chancellor. 

1673, March. Test act. 

All persons holding office under government were compelled 
to take the oaths of allegiance and of supremacy, to abjure tran- 
substantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the estab- 
lished church. 
The duke of York, Shaftesbury, lord Clifford, resigned office, being 
superseded by prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Osborne (earl of 
Danby, viscount Latimer, marquis of Carmarthen, duke of 
Leeds), and Sir Heneage Finch (earl of Nottingham). Buck- 
ingham out of office. 
Nov. 21. Marriage of the duke of York with Mary d'Este, princess 
of Modena. 

1674, Feb. 9. Treaty of Westminster. End of the Dutch-Eng- 
lish war. 

1 This word did not originate from the initials of the ministers, although the 
coincidence of their happening to spell the word gave a zest to its application. 



A. D. England. 381 

1677, Nov. 4. Marriage of Mary, daughter of the duke of York, 

with William of Orange (afterwards William III.). 
Treaty with Holland ; secret treaty with France. Abolition 
of the writ de Jiceretico comburendo. 
Aug. 10. Peace of Nimeguen. 

1678, Sept. The Popish Plot. This famous scare began with the 

information given by Titus Oates, concerning an alleged plot 
for the murder of Charles and the establishment of Roman 
Catholicism in England, devised by Don John of Austria, and 
the father confessor of Louis XIV., Pere la Chaise. Death of 
Sir Edmondbury Godfrey. Upon the meeting of parliament 
five Catholic lords (Powys, Bellasis, Stafford, Petre, Arundel) 
were sent to the Tower. Conviction and execution of Coleman t 
confessor of the duchess of York. Bedloe swore to the plot, 
moved by the favors showered on Oates. Passage of the 
papists disabling act (repealed 1828) excluding Roman 
Catholics from parliament. 
Dec. Impeachment of Danby, on a charge of criminal correspond- 
ence with France. 

1679, Jan. 24. Dissolution of the " Pensioned " Parliament. 

Danby dismissed from the office of lord high treasurer. The 
duke of York left the kingdom after procuring from Charles 
a statement that he had never had any other than his present 
wife (this to dispose of the claims of the duke of Monmouth, 
natural son of Charles and Lucy Walters). 
1679, March 6-1679, May 27. Third Parliament of Charles II. 

The impeachment of Danby was resumed ; and he was com- 
mitted to the Tower, where he lay until 1685. 
Adoption of the council of thirty, in accordance with the scheme of 
government sketched by Sir William Temple. Being found cumber- 
some in practice it was soon superseded by a new cabinet council, com- 
posed of Sir William Temple ; Savile, viscount Halifax ; Capel, earl 
of Essex ; Spencer, earl of Sunderland ; Shaftesbury, president, 
afterwards in opposition. Introduction of a bill to prevent the duke 
of York from succeeding to the crown, he being a Roman Catholic. 
(" Exclusion bill " passed to a second reading in the commons, 207 to 
128.) 

1679, May. The habeas corpus act signed by the king : judges 
were obliged, on application, to issue to any prisoner a writ of 
habeas corpus, directing the jailer to produce the body of the 
prisoner, and show cause for his imprisonment; prisoners should 
be indicted in the first term of their commitment, and tried 
not later than the second ; no person once set free by order of 
the court could be again imprisoned for the same offense. 
May 27. Prorogation of parliament (dissolved in July). * 
May-June. Covenanters in Scotland cruelly persecuted by Lauder- 
dale. Murder of archbishop Sharpe, May 3, 1679. Defeat of 
Claverhouse by the Covenanters, under Balfour, at Drumclog, 
June 1. 
June 22. Battle of Bothwell-Brigg ; defeat of the Covenanters by 
the duke of Monmouth. Cruelties of the duke of York in 
Scotland. 



382 Modern History. A. D. 

Oct. 7. The fourth parliament of Charles II., prorogued immediately 
upon its meeting without the advice of the council : Sir W. 
Temple, Essex, and Halifax resigned, and were succeeded by 
Sidney Godolphin, earl of Godolphin, and Laurence Hyde, 
earl of Rochester (son of Clarendon). 
" Meal tub plot," an alleged papist conspiracy against the king, 

disclosed by Dangerjield. (Papers in a tub of meal.) 

Meeting of parliament demanded by the opposition {Shaftesbury'), 

Petitions sent up, asking that parliament be called. The court 

party retorted by sending addresses expressive of their abhor- 

.y rence at this interference with the king. Hence Petitioners 

1 (the opposition) and Abhorrers (the government), afterwards 

Whigs and Tories. ( Whig, name of a Scotch, Tory, of an 

Irish faction.) 

1680, Oct. 21-1681, Jan. 18. Fourth parliament of Charles II. 

The exclusion bill, passed by the commons, was thrown out in 
the lords by the influence of Halifax. 

1681, March 21-28. Fifth parliament of Charles II., at Oxford. 

A new exclusion bill being introduced, parliament was dis- 
solved, March 28. 
July- Aug. Execution of Plunkett, archbishop of Armagh, for high 

treason (July 1); of College (Aug. 31). 
Nov. Shaftesbury, accused of high treason, committed to the Tower. 
The bill being ignored by the grand jury he escaped to Hoi-. 
land (died 1683). 
Continued persecution of the Covenanters, Conventiclers, and Came- 
ronians.(so called after a popular preacher, f July 20, 1680), in Scot- 
land. Passage of a test act against the Presbyterians, which, however, 
also caused the resignation of some eighty Episcopal clergymen. 
Trial and condemnation of the earl of Argyle (Dec); his flight. 

1682, William of Orange in England. The duke of York, accom- 
panied by John Churchill (b. 1650, served under Turenne in 
France ; general under James II. ; married Sarah Jennings ; 
baron Churchill, 1685 ; earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; duke of 
Marlborough, 1702 ; died, June 16, 1722), shipwrecked on the 
voyage to Scotland. Monmouth made a progress in the north- 
west counties, and was arrested and held to bail. 

Dec. Death of the earl of Nottingham (Finch) ; Sir Francis North 
made lord keeper. Sunderland, secretary of state (Jan. 1683). 

1683, June. Judgment given against the city of London on a quo 

warranto; forfeiture of the charter, which was ransomed. 

This process was successfully repeated with other corporations. 

Confederacy of Monmouth, Essex, Russell, Gray, Howard, Sidney, 
Hampden, for securing a change in the proceedings of the gov- 
ernment. This was supplemented by a plot of a different set 
of persons for the assassination of the king, known as the 
Rye House plot, from the place where the king was to be 
shot. Both plots were revealed. Suicide of Essex, execution 
of Russell and Sidney ; Monmouth was pardoned, and retired to 
Holland. 
Sept. Jeffreys, lord chief justice of the king's bench. The duke of 



A. d. England, 383 

York was reinstated in office. Danby liberated ; Oates fined 
(1684). 
1685, Feb. 6. Death of Charles II., who accepted Roman Catholi- 
cism on his death-bed. 

1685-1688. James IL, 

a cruel, revengeful, deceitful despot. He was twice married : 
1. Anne Hyde, daughter of lord Clarendon (daughters, Mary, mar- 
ried William of Orange ; Anne, married George of Denmark). 2. 
Mary d'Este (son, James Edward). Halifax, president of the council ; 
Sunderland, secretary of state ; Godolphin, chamberlain of the queen, 
Clarendon, lord privy seal, Rochester, treasurer. 
1685, May 19-1687, July 2. Parliament of James II. Trial and 

condemnation of Richard Baxter. Danby and the popish lords 

discharged. 
May. Trial of Oates and Dangerfield, who were sentenced to be 

whipped. {Dangerfield died from the punishment.) 

1685. Expedition of Monmouth and Argyle. 

May. Argyle landed in Scotland, where he was coldly received ; 

June 17 he was captured, and executed June 30. 
June 11. Landing of Monmouth in Dorsetshire. He proclaimed 

himself king, as James II. Gathering a force of some 

60,000 men he was defeated in the 
July 6. Battle of Sedgemoor (the last battle in England). 
July 15. Execution of Monmouth on Tower Hill. " Kirke's 

Lambs" quartered on the people in the western counties. 

Jeffreys sent on a circuit in the west to try the rebels and 

those who had aided them. " The Bloody Assizes " (Lady Alice 

Lisle). Jeffreys made lord chancellor. 
Halifax dismissed from the presidency of the council and super- 
seded by the earl of Sunderland (who became a Roman Catholic). 
Parliament met Nov. 9, but as they would not repeal the last act 
they were prorogued Nov. 27. 

Arrival of many refugees from France after the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes. 

1686, June. Sir Edward Hales, a papist, appointed to office by 

James under a dispensation. In a suit brought to test the 
legality of the act judgment was procured in the king's favor, 
by the appointment of judges favorable to the court. Catholic 
worship allowed. Protestant clergymen forbidden to preach 
doctrinal sermons. Compton, bishop of London, refused to 
remove the rector of St. Giles who had disobeyed this order. 
He was therefore tried before a 

1686, July. New court of ecclesiastical commission and sus- 

pended. 
Camp of 13,000 men at Hounslow Heath. Rochester dis- 
missed from office. 

1687. Clarendon superseded by Tyrconnel (Richard Talbot) as lord 
lieutenant of Ireland. The fellows of Magdalen College having 
refused to accept Farmer, a papist, whom the king had ap- 



884 Modern History. a. d. 

pointed president, were expelled from their college. This was 
only a part of the attempt made by the king to secure the 
universities. 

April. First declaration of liberty of conscience published by 
the king in England and Scotland, granting liberty of con- 
science to all denominations. 

July. Parliament dissolved. Father Petre, the king's confessor and 
chief adviser, admitted to the privy council. 

1688, April 25. Second declaration for liberty of conscience 
ordered to be read in all churches. 
Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Ken, Lake, 
Lloyd, Turner, Trelawney, White, were committed to the 
Tower for having petitioned the king not to insist on their 
reading an illegal order. 

June 10. Birth of a prince. 

June 29, 30. Trial of the bishops for having published a false, 
malicious, and seditious libel. The bishops were acquitted, a 
verdict which was received with wild enthusiasm throughout 
the country. On the same day an invitation was dispatched 
to William of Orange to save England from a Catholic 
tyranny ; it was signed by the 

" Seven eminent persons " or " seven patriots," the earl of Dev- 
onshire, earl of Shrewsbury, earl of Danby, Compton (bishop of 
London), Henry Sidney, lord Lumley, admiral Russell. 
James declared his intention to call a parliament. Last meet- 
ing of the ecclesiastical commission. 

Sept. 30. Declaration of William to the people of England, ac- 
cepting the invitation for the purpose of securing the religious 

and civil rights of Englishmen. Doubts thrown on the birth of the 

prince. 

William's army was under Schomberg, his fleet was under admiral 

Herbert. James's land force was led by Feversham, while Dartmouth 

commanded the fleet. 

The declaration frightened James ; he endeavored to retrace his 

steps and dismissed Sunderland from the council. William sailed 

from Helvoetsluys Oct. 19, with 14,000 men, but was driven back by 

a gale. Starting again Nov. 1, 

1688, Nov. 5. William landed at Torbay. Risings occurred in 
various parts of the kingdom, and William was joined by the 
duke of Grafton and lord Churchill (Nov. 22). Princess Anne 
fled from London in company with lady Churchill. James is- 
sued writs for a new parliament and sent commissioners to 
treat with William. 

Dec. 10. Queen and prince sent to France. 

Dec. 11. Flight of James, who tore up the unissued writs for par- 
liament and took with him the great seal, which he threw into 
the Thames. 

1688, Dec. 11-1689, Feb. 13. Interregnum. 

Riots in London. Flight of Sunderland and Father Petre ; cap- 
ture of Jeffreys (f in the Tower April 18, 1689). 



A. d. England. 385 

Dec. 12. Provisional government under the presidency of Halifax, 

established by the peers in London. 
Dec. 17. James, who had been stopped at Sheerness, was brought 

back to London. 
Dec. 18 v James retired to Rochester. 
Dec. 19. William entered London. 
Dec. 22. James escaped to France, where he received a pension from 

Louis XIV. 
1689, Jan. 22-1690, Jan. 27. Convention parliament, summoned 

by the advice of the peers. 
On Jan. 28 the commons declared : " That king James II. having 
endeavored to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking 
the original contract between king and people, and by the advice of 
Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental 
laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdi- 
cated the government, and that the throne is vacant." Also : " That 
it hath been found by experience to be inconsistent with the safety 
and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a popish 
prince." The lords objected to the use of the word " abdicated," 
and to the declaration of the "vacancy" of the throne, but an 
agreement being reached in a conference of the two houses, the 
crown was offered to Mary and the regency to William ; this being 
refused, 
1689, Feb. 13. Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary 

jointly, accompanying the offer by the presentation of the 
Declaration of rights, asserting the " true, ancient, and indubitable 
rights of the people of this realm." 1. That the making or suspend- 
ing law without consent of parliament is illegal. 2. That the exercise 
of the dispensing power is illegal. 3. That the ecclesiastical commis- 
sion court and other such like courts are illegal. 4. That levying 
money without consent of parliament is illegal. 5. That it is lawful 
to petition the sovereign. 6. That the maintenance of a standing 
army without the consent of parliament is illegal. 7. That it is law- 
ful to keep arms. 8. That elections of members of parliament must 
be free. 9. That there must be freedom of debate in parliament. 
10. That excessive bail should never be demanded. 11. That juries 
should be impaneled and returned in every trial. 12. That grants of 
estates as forfeited before conviction of the offender are illegal. 13. 
That parliament should be held frequently. " William and Mary 
were declared king and queen of England for life, the chief adminis- 
tration resting with William ; the crown was next settled on William's 
children by Mary ; in default of such issue, on the princess Anne of 
Denmark and her children ; and in default of these, on the children 
of William by any other wife." The crown was accepted by William 
and Mary, who were on the same day proclaimed king and queen of 
Great Britain, Ireland, and France. 

1689-1702. William III. and Mary (until 1694). 

Privy councillors : earl of Z*anby (marquis of Carmarthen), presi- 
dent ; Nottingham, Shrewsbury, secretaries of state ; marquis of 
Halifax, privy seal ; Schomberg (duke of Schomberg) master-general 



386 Modern History. a. d. 

of ordnance ; Bentinck (earl of Portland), privy purse and groom 

of the stole. Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, author of " History of my 

own Times." 

Feb. 22. Convention parliament transformed by act into a regular 
parliament. Settlement of the coronation oath. 

March 1. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy taken. by the 
houses, the clergy, etc. A few peers, some members of the 
lower house refused them. Six bishops and about 400 clergy- 
men were finally (1691) deprived of their holdings for refus= 
ing to take the oaths, and became known as non-jurors. 

March 14. Landing of James at Kinsale in Ireland ; joined by Tyr- 
connel ; entered Dublin March 24. Irish parliament, May 7. 
Meeting of the estates of Scotland. 
Reversal of Russell's attainders (later of Sidney's). 
First mutiny act to punish defection in the army ; this act, 
which was necessitated by the declaration of rights, was made 
for a year only, and was henceforward passed annually. 

April 11. Coronation of William and Mary. William and Mary 
were offered and accepted the crown of Scotland. 

April 20-July 30. Siege of Londonderry by James ( Walker) ; 
raised by Kirke. 

1689, May 7-1697, Sept. 20. War with France (p. 361). 
May 24. Toleration act exempting dissenters (who had taken the 
oaths of allegiance and supremacy) from penalties for non-at- 
tendance on the services of the established church. 
Titus Oates pardoned and pensioned. 
July. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. 

Graham of Claverhouse, now viscount Dundee, enlisted High- 
landers and raised the standard for James. At the 
July 17. Battle of Killiecrankie 

he defeated general Mackay, but fell on the field. 
July 30. Battle of Newtown Butler in Ireland ; defeat of the Catho- 
lics. Schomberg in Ireland. 
In voting supplies parliament assumed as a right the practice 
which had grown up during the reign of Charles II. of requiring 
estimates and accounts of supplies needed and used, and intro- 
duced the system of passing appropriations for specified objects 
from which they could not be diverted. 

1689. Dec. 16. Bill of Rights, 

a parliamentary enactment of the declaration of rights, repeat- 
ing the provisions of that paper, settling the succession as de- 
tailed (p. 385), and enacting that no papist could wear the 
crown. 

1690, Feb. 6. Dissolution of parliament. 

1690, March 20-1695, May 3. Second parliament of William 
III. Tories in the majority. 
Act of recognition, affirming the legality of the acts of the convention 
parliament. Settlement of the civil list. William was offended at' 
not receiving so large an income as had been granted either to Charles 
II. or James II. 



A. d. England. 387 

1690, May 20. Act of Grace, giving indemnity to all supporters 

of James II., except those who were in treasonable corres- 
pondence with him. Resignation of Shrewsbury and Halifax. 

May 23. Prorogation of parliament. Appointment of a council of 
nine to advise Mary during the king's absence (four Whigs, 
five Tories'). 

June 14. William went to Ireland. With 36,000 men he met James 
at the head of 27,000, and at the 

July 1. Battle of the Boyne 

totally defeated him. Death of Schomberg. James fled to 
France. Capture of Dublin, Waterford, etc. 

June 30. Battle of Beachy Head ; defeat of the English fleet 
under lord Torrington by the French. Torrington was tried 
by court martial and acquitted, but dismissed the service. 

Aug. First siege of Limerick by William repulsed (Sarsjield). 
Marlborough in Ireland. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. 

1691, William went to Holland. Congress at the Hague. 
Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury. 

July 12. Battle of Aughrim, in Ireland. 

Defeat of the French general St. Ruth and the Irish Sarsjield, 
by Ginkell (death of St. Ruth). Death of Tyrconnel. 

Aug.-Oct. Second siege of Limerick ; the town surrendered Oct. 3, 
under the conditions known as the 

Oct. 3. Treaty, or pacification, of Limerick. Free transportation 
of all Irish officers and soldiers desiring it to France. (The 
Irish Brigade.) All Irish Catholics to have that religious lib- 
erty which they had under Charles II. ; to carry arms, exer- 
cise their professions, and receive full amnesty. 
The English parliament confirmed the treaty, but the Irish par- 
liament which met 1695 (consisting entirely of Protestants) 
refused to ratify it. Enactment of severe laws against the 
Catholics. 

1692, Jan. 10. Marlborough detected in correspondence with 
James, and disgraced. 

1692, Feb. 13. Massacre of Glencoe. 

Indemnity and pardon having been offered to all Highland 
clans who took the oath of allegiance before Dec. 31, 1691, 
that condition was fulfilled by all except the MacDonalds of 
Glencoe. The chief, Mac Ian, however, took the oath on Jan. 
6. This fact was suppressed by the foe of the MacDonalds, 
Dalrymple, secretary of Scotland, and William III. signed an 
order for the extirpation of the clan. It was faithfully exe- 
cuted by captain Campbell ; Mac Ian, and some forty others 
were slain. 
May 19. English victory of La Hogue ; Russell and Tourville. 
July 24. Defeat of William at Steinkirk. 

The "Junto" ministry of Whigs ; Somers, lord keeper; Russell, 
Shrewsbury, Thomas Wharton, secretaries of state ; Montague, chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. Sunderland returned to parliament. 
X693, Jan. Beginning of the national debt. £1,000,000 borrowed 
on annuities at 10 per cent. 



388 Modern History. A. d. 

1693, July 19. Defeat of William at Neerwinden (Landen). 

1694, July 27. Charter of the Governor and company of the 

Bank of England, a company of merchants who in return for 
certain privileges loaned the government £1,200,000. Bill for 
preventing officers of the crown from sitting in the commons 
(Place Bill). Unsuccessful attack on Brest. (Treachery of 
Marlborough f) 

Dec. 22. The triennial bill signed by the king. 

Dec. 28. Death of queen Mary. 

Bribery in the parliament ; expulsion of the speaker of the 
commons, Sir John Trevor. 
Expiration of the licensing act, which was not renewed ; 
hence abolition of the censorship of the press. 

1695, July 2-Sept. 2. William recaptured Namur. 
Oct. 11. Dissolution of parliament. 

1695, Nov. 22-1698, July 5. Third parliament of William III. 

(first triennial parliament). 
Whigs in majority. Recoinage act. Isaac Newton master of 
the mint. 

1696, Trials for treason act; two witnesses required to prove an overt 
act of treason. 

Plot for the assassination of William, execution of conspirators. 
One of these, Fenwick, was condemned by bill of attainder, 
being the last person so condemned. Formation of a loyal 
association. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. 

Sunderland, lord chamberlain ; Somers, lord chancellor. 

1697, Sept. 20. Peace of Ryswick (p. 371). 
Dec. Sunderland retired. 

William acknowledged by Louis XIV. 

1698, Jan. Peter the Great of Russia in England. 
1698. Spanish succession, see p. 390. 

1698, Dec. 6-1700, Apr. 11. Fourth parliament of William HI. 

1699, Feb. Disbanding act, reducing the army to 7,000 men, exclusion 

of the foreign (Dutch) troops ; annoyance of William. 

Act for the resumption of forfeited Irish estates, aimed at Wil- 
liam's Dutch favorites ; the bill was fastened to a bill of supply. 

Act for preventing the growth of papacy ; all persons refusing to 
take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy forfeited their 
estates for life. Catholic school-teachers and priests were 
liable to imprisonment for life (repealed 1778). 

1700, March. Miserable end of Darien settlement (founded 1698). 

1700, April. Somers dismissed from office. Bombardment of Co- 

penhagen by Rooke. 
July. Death of the duke of Gloucester, the last of Anne's children. 

1701, Feb. 6-June 24. Fifth parliament of William III. Tories 

in the majority. Robert Harley, speaker. Portland, Somers, 
Oxford (Russell), Halifax, impeached (April-June). 
Earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of the English forces. 
June 12, 1701. Act of settlement. 

The crown was settled on Sophia, princess of Hanover, grand- 
daughter of James I., and her issue. 



A. D. India. 389 

The sovereigns of Great Britain should be Protestant and not leave 
the kingdom without consent of parliament ; the country should 
not be involved in war for the defence of the foreign possessions of 
the sovereigns ; no foreigner should receive a grant from the crown, 
or hold office, civil or military ; ministers should be responsible for 
the acts of their sovereigns ; judges should hold office for life unless 
guilty of misconduct. 

1701, Sept. 7. The grand alliance, p. 391. 

Sept. 16. Death of James II. James Edward proclaimed king of 
Great Britain and Ireland by Louis XIV. 

1701, Dec. 30-1702, July 2. Sixth parliament of William III. 

Attainder of the pretended prince of Wales. Oath of abjura- 
tion. 

1702, March 8. Death of William III. 

Chief authors of this period : Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) ; 
John Bunyan (1628-1688); Daniel Defoe (1661-1731); John Dryden 
(1631-1700) ; Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-1674) ; John 
Locke (1632-1704); John Milton (1608-1674); Isaac Newton (1643- 
1727). (Seep. 433.) 

§ 6. INDIA. (Seep. 354.) 

1658-1707. Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. 

The first years of Aurangzeb's reign were occupied in subdu- 
ing and putting to death his brothers. When freed from their ri- 
valry he took up the conquest of the Deccan. Bidar, Ahmednagar, 
Ellichpur, he had conquered while his father reigned. For twenty- 
five years his generals warred unsuccessfully against Bijapur and Gol- 
conda, but when Aurangzeb placed himself at the head of his troops 
those kingdoms quickly fell. Bijapur and Golconda were annexed to 
the Mughal empire in 1688. It was not with the Muhammedan 
powers alone that Aurangzeb had to contend ; a new power, the Hin- 
du kingdom of the Mahrattas, had arisen in the Deccan. It was 
founded by a union of Hindu tribes of the Deccan under Sivaji 
(1627-1680), son of a Mahratta soldier of fortune who had fought 
under the Deccan kingdoms against the Mughals. Sivaji, by alter- 
nately levying tribute on the Deccan kingdoms and assisting them 
against the Mughals, raised the Mahratta confederacy to be the 
ruling power in the Deccan. In 1664 he assumed the title of Raja. 
He carried on a war with Aurangzeb, who captured and killed his 
son Sambhaji (1680-1689), and imprisoned his grandson Sahu, until 
his own death, 1707. Aurangzeb, however, was far from subduing 
the confederacy, which had driven him almost to despair at the time of 
his death ; the emperor was not more successful in Assam (1662), nor 
against the revolted Rajput states in the west (1677-1681) where he 
ravaged Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Uddipur without subduing them. 

Aurangzeb's total revenue amounted to eighty million pounds. 
1661. Bombay ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine 

of Braganza, but it was not delivered until 1665. In 1668 it 

was granted to the East India Company. 
1670. Foundation of the Danish East India Company. 
168L Bengal separated from Madras. 



890 Modern History, A. d. 

1686. Foundation of Calcutta. 

1687. Seat of western presidency transferred to Bombay. 

{See p. U2.) 
§ 7. CHINA. (Seep. 855.) 

1661-1721. Kang-he 

conquered Thibet and Formosa and carried on war with Russia 
(1684-1689). His reign was renowned for wise administration and 
for the cultivation of science and literature. French and English set- 
tled at Canton. {See p. 444.) 



B. The eighteenth century to the French Revolution. 

§ 1. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.! 
1701-1714. (See pp. 332, 372.) 

The family relations which led to the war will be made clear 
by the following genealogical table. 

Philip III., king of Spain, f 1621. 

Anna, m. Philip IV. Maria Anna. 

Louis XIII. I m. Ferdinand III. 



Louis XIV. = Maria Theresa. Charles II. Margaret Theresa == Leopold I. 
| t 1700. | 

Louis the dauphin. Maria Antoinette, m. 

| Max. Emmanuel of 

Bavaria. 
Philip of Anjou, | 

as king of Spain, Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand. 

electoral prince of Bavaria. 

Leopold I. had, besides his daughter Maria Antoinette, two sons: by 
his second marriage, Joseph I., emperor from 1705-1711; by his third 
marriage, Charles VI., emperor from 1711-1740. 

Charles II., king of Spain, was childless ; the extinction of the 
Spanish house of Hapsburg in the near future was certain ; hence the 
question of the Spanish succession formed the chief occupation of all 
the European cabinets since the Peace of Ryswick. The question had 
two aspects: a. The legal, according to which there were three claim- 
ants: 1. Louis XIV., at once as son of the elder daughter of Philip III, 
and husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV. The solemn renun- 
ciations of both princesses were declared null and void by the parlia- 
ment of Paris. 2. Leopold I., the representative of the German line 
of Hapsburg, as son of the younger daughter of Philip III., and husband 
of the younger daughter of Philip IV. Both princesses had expressly 
reserved their right of inheritance. 3. The electoral prince of Ba- 

1 Schlosser: Geschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts ; V. Noorden: Europaischt 
Gesch. im 18 Jahrhundert, vols. I. and II. 



A. d. War of the Spanish Succession. 391 

varia, as great-grandson of Philip IV., and grandson of the younger 
sister of the present possessor, Charles II. b. The political aspect with 
regard to the balance of power in Europe ; in consideration of which 
the naval powers, England and Holland, would not permit the crown 
of the great Spanish monarchy to be united with the French, or to 
be worn by the ruler of the Austrian lands. On this account Leopold 
I. claimed the Spanish inheritance for his second son Charles only, 
while Louis XIV. 's claim was urged in the name of his second grand- 
son, Philip ofAnjou. 
1698. First treaty of partition. 

Oct. 11. Spain, Indies, and the Netherlands to the electoral prince of 
Bavaria; Naples and Sicily, seaports in Tuscany, and the prov- 
ince of Guipuzcoa, to the dauphin ; the duchy of Milan, to arch- 
duke Charles. 
The negotiations of the powers in regard to the succession, and the 
conclusion of a treaty of partition without the participation of Charles 
II., provoked that monarch. 

In order to preserve the unity of the monarchy he made the prince 
elector of Bavaria, then seven years old, sole heir of the whole inheri- 
tance ; a settlement to which the naval powers agreed. 
1699 (Feb. 6). Sudden death of the prince elector. New intrigues 
of France {Harcourt ambassador, Cardinal Portocarrerd) and 
Austria at Madrid, while both parties were negotiating a new treaty 
of partition with the naval powers. 
1700. Second treaty of partition. 

Mar. 13. Spain and the Indies to archduke Charles ; Naples and Sicily 
and the duchy of Lorraine to the dauphin ; Milan to the duke 
of Lorraine in exchange. 
Finally Charles II., although originally more inclined to the Aus- 
trian succession, signed a new will, making Louis' grandson, Philip of 
Anjou, heir. Immediately afterwards 

1700. Charles II. died. 

Nov. 1. Louis XIV. soon decided to follow the will rather than 
the treaty with England. The duke of Anjou was proclaimed 
as Philip V., and started for his new kingdom. (" II n'y a plus de 
Pyrenees") Death of James II., 1701 ; Louis recognized his son as 
king of England. 

1701. Grand Alliance of the naval powers with the emperor 
Sept. 7. Leopold I., for the purpose, at first, of securing the Spanish 

possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy for the Austrian 
house, while France allied herself with the dukes of Savoy and Man- 
tua, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne. The other estates of the 
empire, especially Prussia, joined the emperor. Portugal afterwards 
joined the grand alliance, and in 1703 Savoy did likewise, deserting 
France. 

Three men were at the head of the grand alliance against France : 
Eugene, prince of Savoy, imperial general; Marlborough, English 
general, formerly John Churchill; A. Heinsius, after the death of 
William III., 1702, pensionary of Holland. 

Spain, the real object of the war, had but little importance in the 



392 Modern History. A. d. 

campaigns, the chief seat of war being Italy, the Netherlands, and 
Germany. 

Philip of Anjou was recognized in Spain as king Philip V. His 
strongest support was in Castile. 

1701. Commencement of the war by Eugene's invasion of Italy. 
Victory over Catinat at Carpi, over Villeroi at Chiari ; the lat- 
ter was captured at Cremona (1702). 

Eugene and Vendome fought a drawn battle at Luzzara (1702) 9 
after which the French had the advantage in Italy until 1706. 

1702. March 8. Death of William III. Anne, queen of England. 

1703. The Bavarians invaded Tyrol, but were repulsed. Eugene 
went to Germany, along the Rhine. Marlborough invaded the 

Spanish Netherlands. The archduke Charles landed in Portugal, and 
invaded Catalonia. The English captured Gibraltar (1704). 

1703. Victory of the French under Villars at Hbchstddt over the Ba- 
varians. 

1704. Battle of Hochstadt and Blindheim (Blenheim), 
Aug. 13. (between Ulm and Donau worth), Bavarians and French 

(Tallard) defeated by Eugene and Marlborough. 

1705. Leopold I. died. His son, Joseph I., emperor. 

1706. Charles conquered Madrid but held it for a short time only. 

1706, May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ramillies over 
Villeroi. Submission of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, etc. 

Sept. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin, 

over Marsin and the duke of Orleans with help of the Prus- 
sians under Leopold of Dessau. Submission of all Lombardy. 
Charles III. proclaimed at Milan. The French permanently 
excluded from Italy. 

1708, July 11. Victory of Marlborough and Eugene at 
Oudenarde over Vendome and the duke of Burgundy. 
Siege and surrender of Lille. Severe winter in France. 

Negotiations for peace. Demands of the allies : surrender of the 
Spanish monarchy to Charles of Austria, and of the border fortresses 
of the Netherlands to the Hollanders ; restoration of all matters re- 
lating to the empire and the emperor to the state prescribed in the 
peace of Westphalia, i. e. the cession of Strasburg, Brisach, etc. Eng- 
land insisted on the recognition of Anne and the Protestant succes- 
sion (p. 388) and the banishment of the Pretender. These terms Louis 
was willing to accept, but when the demand was added that he should 
drive his grandson from Spain with French weapons, it was too much. 
The negotiations were broken off, Louis made a successful appeal to 
the people of France, and the war was continued. 

1709. The French were again humbled by the victory of 
Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough at Malplaquet over 

Villars. The bloodiest battle of the war. The allies lost 20,000 
men. New approaches on the part of Louis. Capture of Douai, 
Mans, etc. (1710). In Spain Philip, by the aid of Vendome, 
had the advantage of Charles. The Spanish people favored 



A. D, War of the Spanish Succession. 393 

Philip. Renewal of the negotiations at Gertruydenburg. Louis 
offered to pay subsidized troops against his grandson. The al- 
lies demanded that he should send his armies against Philip. 
Renewal of the war. Victories of Venddme over the English 
(Brihuega, 1710) and the imperialists (Valla-viciosa, in Spain). 

1710. Aug. Fall of the Whig ministry in England, and accession 

of the enemies of Marlborough. 

1711. Death of the Emperor Joseph, whereby Charles became 
heir of all the Austrian possessions, so that the monarchy of 

Charles V. would have been restored had the Spanish inheritance 
also devolved upon him. These events completely altered all the 
political relations, in favor of Louis XIV. 

Marlborough removed from command, the Grand Alliance dis- 
solved, preliminaries of peace between England and France. Death 
of the dauphin, of Adelaide of Savoy, her husband and their son, 
the duke of Brittany. 

1712. Victory of the French commander Villars at Denain over lord 
Albermarle. Recapture of Douai, Le Quesnoy, and Bouchain. 

Opening of the congress at Utrecht. Each of the allies pre- 
sented his demands separately. Dissensions between the allies 
caused the conclusion of separate treaties of peace, which are compre- 
hended under the name of the 

1713. Peace of Utrecht. 
April 11. 

1. England: Recognition of the Protestant succession in England; 
confirmation of the permanent separation of the crowns of France 
and Spain. France ceded to England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia 
(Acadia), and Hudson Bay territory; Spain ceded to England 
Gibraltar, the island of Minorca, and the Asiento, or contract for sup- 
plying the Spanish colonies with African slaves. 

2. Holland : Surrender of the Spanish Netherlands to the republic 
of Holland, in order that they should be delivered to the Austrians, 
after the conclusion of a Barrier Treaty, in regard to the fortresses 
along the French border from Fumes to Namur, which were to be 
garrisoned by the Dutch. Lille restored to France. Demolition of 
the fortifications of Dunkirk. 

3. Savoy received the island of Sicily as a kingdom, and an ad- 
vantageous change of boundary in Upper Italy, renounced its claims 
upon Spain, reserving, however, its right of inheritance in case the 
house of Bourbon should become extinct (p. 397). 

4. Prussia received recognition of the royal title, and possession of 
Neuchatel and the upper quarter of Gueldres. Prussia's claim upon the 
principality of Orange on the Rhone, was transferred to France. 

5. Portugal obtained a correction of boundaries in South America. 
Philip V. (founder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons) was 

recognized as king of Spain and the colonies. 

Reservations in the peace: 1. for the emperor, the possession of the 
appanages of the Spanish monarchy, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, 
Sardinia, but not Sicily ; 2. for the empire the status quo of the peace 
of Ryswick, only. 



394 Modern History. A. d. 

The emperor and the empire continued the war. Unsuccessful 
campaign of Eugene, who was wretchedly supported (1713). Lan- 
dau and Freiburg taken by Villars. After these losses the emperor 
concluded peace with France, in his own name at Rastadt, in that of 
the empire at Baden (in Switzerland). 

1714. Peace of Rastadt and Baden. 

March-Sept. 

Austria took possession of the Spanish Netherlands, after the 
Barriere for Holland had been agreed upon, and retained Naples, 
Sardinia, and Milan, which she had already occupied. For the empire : 
ratification of the peace of Ryswick ; the electors of Bavaria and 
Cologne who had been placed under the ban of the empire, were rein- 
stated in their lands and dignities. Landau was left in the hands of 
France. 

No peace between Spain and the emperor, who did not recognize 
the Bourbons in Spain. {See p. 4H-) 

§ 2. THE NORTHERN WAR. 

1700-1721. 

1689-1725. Peter I. the Great, Czar of Russia (p. 374). 

1697-1718. Charles XII., king of Sweden. 

In character the two monarchs formed a strong contrast: both were 
of unusual ability and power, but Peter, though passionate and of 
irregular life, was, in his political actions, governed by reason and calm 
reflection. Charles, in his private life passionless and of rigid mor- 
ality, was under the control of passion and senseless obstinacy in all 
public relations. The steady purpose of Peter, who civilized his sub- 
jects by force, made Russia one of the great powers of Europe, 
Charles' blind obstinacy caused the decline of Sweden's power. 

The causes of the northern war were : 1, the firm determination 
of Peter to make Russia a naval power, and to get possession of the 
harbors of the Baltic ; 2, the attempt of Augustus II., elector of Sax- 
ony and king of Poland, to unite Livonia with Poland (Paikut) ; 3, the 
quarrel between Frederic IV., king of Denmark, and the duke of Hol- 
stein-Gottorp, the early friend and brother-in-law of Charles XII. 

The youthfulness of Charles, who had assumed the care of gov- 
ernment at the age of fifteen, led all three monarchs to think it an 
easy task to regain possession of those lands which Sweden had 
taken from them. Secret alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony 
against Sweden. 

The war opened with an invasion of Schleswig by the Danes, while 
the Saxons attacked Livonia. Unexpected landing of Charles XII. 
in Zealand ; he threatened Copenhagen and extorted from the Danes 
the 

1700 (Aug.). Peace of Travendal. 

1. Indemnification of the duke of Holstein. 2. Denmark promised 
to abstain from hostilities against Sweden for the future. 

Meantime the Saxons were besieging Riga (in Livonia) in vain, 



a. d. The Northern War, 395 

while Peter was besieging Narva (in Ingermannland) with like result. 
Landing of Charles XII. with 8,000 men and brilliant 

1700. Victory of Narva, 
Nov. 30. 

over the Russians. Charles's hatred of Augustus led him to 
neglect his more dangerous opponent, the Czar, and to seek revenge 
upon the king of Poland. Meeting and closer alliance of Augustus 
and Peter. Charles crossed the Diina and 

1701. defeated the Saxons at Riga. Charles invaded Lithuania. 
The republic of Poland was drawn into the war ; alliance of 

the party of the Sapiehas with the Swedes. The city of Warsaw sur- 
rendered at the first summons. 

Victory of Charles XII. over the Poles and Saxons at Klissow 
(1702) and at Pultusk (1703). Charles rejected all overtures of 
peace, caused Augustus to be deposed by that party among the Poles 
which had joined him and his adherent, the Woiwod 
1704-1709. Stanislaus Lescziiiski to be elected king. 

Meanwhile Peter had founded his capital, St. Petersburg, in the 
marshes of the Neva (1703), and captured Narva (1704). 

Continuance of the war in Poland and Lithuania. Victory of 
Charles at Punitz (1704 Schulenburg's masterly retreat) and of his 
general Rhenskjold at Fraustadt (1706). Charles invaded Saxony 
and compelled Augustus to sign the 
1706. Peace of Altranstadt (near Leipzig). 

1. Augustus II. abdicated the Polish crown, recognized Stanislaus 
Lesczinski as king of Poland, and sent him a written expression of 
good will. 2. Augustus abjured his alliance with the Czar, and 
delivered the plenipotentiary of the latter, Patkul, to Charles who 
had him executed with cruelty. 3. Saxony furnished provisions and 
pay for the Swedish army during the winter. 

In Sept., 1707, Charles took the field against Peter, who had well 
employed the interval in making conquests and establishing his power 
on the Baltic, and in forming a trained and veteran army. The ap- 
proach to Moscow cut off by devastation of the country. Charles 
allowed himself to be misled by the Cossack hetman Mazeppa, who 
had deserted Peter, crossed the Dnieper (1708) into the Ukraine. 
Futile siege of Pultowa. Peter hastened to raise the siege and 
by force of numbers completely defeated the Swedes, who were 
exhausted by long marches and lack of food, in the 
1709, July 8. Battle of Pultowa, 

which established Peter's new creations on a firm basis, and 
destroyed at one blow the ascendency of Sweden. The Swedish 
army was completely broken up, and a large part of it captured. 
Charles took refuge with the Turks. 

1709-1714. Charles XII. in Turkey, endeavoring to induce the Porte 
to declare war against Peter. He was successful in 1711. 
Peter, allied with the princes of the Moldau, crossed the Dniester, was 
surrounded on the Pruth, and was obliged to buy the 
1711. Peace of the Pruth from the Turks by bribery, upon the 
advice of his wife Catherine. 



396 Modern History. A. D. 

1. Azoj? given back to the Porte. 2. The king of Sweden allowed 
to return to his realm unmolested. 

Charles XII., indignant at this peace, refused to depart, and for 
three years more misused the patience and hospitality of the Turks 
at Bender, Bessarabia, now belonging to Russia, and in Demotika. 
Senseless defense of his camp against a whole army, when the at- 
tempt was made to force his departure (1713). Meantime his enemies 
were making good use of the time. Augustus II. drove king Stanis- 
laus from Poland ; the Danes tried to reconquer the southern prov- 
inces of Sweden, but were repulsed. Peter the Great occupied all of 
Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, Carelia, Finland. The Convention 
of the Hague (1710), in order to keep the war away from the German 
boundaries, had established the neutrality of all the German provinces 
of Sweden, as well as of Schleswig and Jutland. Charles XII., how- 
ever, having from his retreat in Turkey protested against this treaty, 
the Danes took Schleswig away from the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 
and conquered the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden (1712), 
which they afterwards (1715) sold to Hanover upon condition that 
that state should take part in the war against Sweden. The Swedish 
general Stenbock defeated the Danes and burnt Altona, but was cap- 
tured by the Russians at Tonningen (1713). The Danes and Poles 
invaded Pommerania, the Prussians occupied Stettin. 
1714. Charles XII. at last returned to his kingdom. Adventurous 
journey through Hungary and Germany. The king reached 
Stralsund. Alliance between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, Hanover, 
Russia, against Sweden. Stralsund and with it all Pomerania lost 
(1715), Wismar soon captured also (1716). 
1716. Peter I. made a journey to Denmark, Holland, France. 

Charles XII. negotiated with Peter I. through Baron von 
Gorz, who, in spite of the hatred borne him by the Swedish nobles, 
was placed in control of the internal administration of Sweden. 
Three expeditions of the Swedes to Norway ; on the third, 

1718. Charles XII. was shot in front of Friedrichshall, prob- 
Dec. 11. ably by an assassin. 

After limits had been set on the royal power in the interests of the 
royal council, Charles's nephew was passed over, and his youngest 
sister, 

1719. Ulrica Eleanora, raised to the throne. She soon 
placed the control of the government in the hands of her 

husband, 

1720-1751. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. 

Execution of the Baron von Gorz, Charles's intimate. The north- 
ern war was ended by a series of treaties concluded at Stockholm and 
Friedrichsburg. 

1. With Hanover (1719), which retained Bremen and Verden, and 
paid Sweden one million thalers. 2. With Prussia (1720), which 
received Stettin, western Pomerania as far as the Peene, the islands 
of Wollin and Usedom, and paid two million thalers. 3. With Den- 



a. d. Germany. 397 

mark, which restored all its conquests. In return Sweden paid 
600,000 rix dollars, gave up its freedom from custom duties in the 
Sound and abandoned the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark 
deprived of his share of Schleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of 
1719 was continued. 

1721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and 
Russia. 

1. Sweden ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part 
of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, Dago. 2. 
Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars. 

(See p. 409.) 
§ 3. GERMANY. (Seep. 372.) 

1705-1711. Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded 
by his brother 

1711-1740. Charles VI., 

War of the Spanish Succession, p. 390. 
1713-1740. Frederic William I., son of Frederic I., king of Prus- 
sia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establish- 
ment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of 
Prussia. Maintenance of a standing army of 83,000 men, with p^ 
population of two and a half million inhabitants. Prince Leopold of 
Anhalt-Dessau ("the old Dessauan"). 

1714-1718. "War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the 
emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Turks ; the Vene- 
tians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly con- 
ducted by prince Eugene. Victory of Peterwardein (1716). 
Victory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717). 
1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Posharewatz). 

1. Austria received the Banat of Temesvar, a, part of Servia, 
with Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her con- 
quests in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte. 

The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where 
Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite 
the minister and cardinal Alberoni, were planning to regain the 
Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the 
1718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of 
Aug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, the emperor, and (since 
1719) the Republic of Holland. 

After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to Eome 
(f 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 
1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renuncia- 
tion of the appanages forever, in return for which the em- 
peror recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to 
exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of 
Savoy called themselves kings of Sardinia. 

The emperor Charles VI. was without male offspring. His prin- 
cipal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various 



398 Modern History. A. D. 

lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division 
after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under 
the name of the 

Pragmatic Sanction, 

which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire 
should be indivisible ; 2. That in case male heirs should fail, they 
should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was 
Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeni- 
ture ; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph 

1. and their descendants were to inherit. 

To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanc- 
tion was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special 
alliance between Austria and Spain (1725), in regard to this measure, 
produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between 
England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew 
from the alliance and joined Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. 
The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 

1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the 
death of Augustus II. 

Cause : The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of 
France, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the father- 
in-law of Louis XV., king, a second time. Russia and Austria in- 
duced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of 
Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops 
in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. 

The seat of war was at first in Italy, where Milan, Naples, and 
Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan, 
and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene 
fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the 
future husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the 
imperial arms. Lorraine occupied by the French. Kehl captured 
Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations, 

1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna. 

1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, 
receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which 
at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1766. 

2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnifica- 
tion in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the ex- 
tinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 416). 3. Austria ceded 
Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to 
Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could 
never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange 
Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon 
the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed 
the Pragmatic Sanction. 

1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia 
(p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade, 
Servia, and Little Wallachia were restored to the Turks. 
1740, May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia. 



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400 Modern History. A. D. 

1740-1786- Frederic II. the Great (twenty-eight years 
old). 

Born in 1712, received a French education under Madame de 
Rocoulles and Duhan de Jandun • musical (Quanz). After the frus- 
tration of the projected marriage with a daughter of George II. 
of England, estrangement between the king and the crown prince. 
Frederic attempted flight, was captured, and sentenced to Kiistrin as 
a deserter (execution of Katie) where he found employment in the 
Chamber of War and of Domain. Marriage with a princess of Bruns- 
wick-Bevern (1733). Correspondence with Voltaire. Residence at 
Rheinsberg and Ruppin until 1740. From his accession to his death 
he was himself the ruler. 

1740, Oct. With the death of Charles VI. the male line 
of the Hapsburgs was extinct. 1 

1740-1780. Maria Theresa, 

queen of Bohemia and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, 
etc., married Francis Stephen of the house of Lorraine, grand 
duke of Tuscany (co-regent). 

1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. 

Cause : The following claimants for the Austrian inheritance 
appeared: 1. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, who had never rec- 
ognized the Pragmatic Sanction, a descendant of Anna, the eldest 
daughter of Ferdinand I. He based his claim upon the marriage con- 
tract of Anna, and will of Ferdinand I., whereby the Austrian inheri- 
tance was (he claimed) secured to the descendants of Anna, in case 
the male descendants of her brother should become extinct. (The 
original will, however, read, in case the legitimate descendants of her 
brother became extinct.) 2. Philip V., king of Spain, relying on a 
treaty between Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand on occasion of 
the cession of the German lands, and upon a reservation made by 
Philip III. in his renunciation of the German lands. 3. Augustus III. 
of Saxony, the husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I. 

The claims advanced by Frederic II. to a part of Silesia, and his de- 
sire to annex the whole of Silesia to his kingdom, the rejection of the 
offer which he made at Vienna to take the field in favor of Austria if 
his claims were recognized, brought about, before the commencement 
of hostilities by the other claimants, the 

1740-1742. First Silesian War. 2 

Legal claims of Prussia to a portion of Silesia : 3 1. The princi- 
pality of Jdgerndorf was purchased in 1523 by a younger branch of the 
electoral line of Hohenzollern, and the future acquisition of Ratibor and 

1 See the genealogical table, p. 399. 

2 A supplement to the Prussian view of the relations of Frederic and the courts 
of Vienna and Paris will be found in the papers by the Due de Broglie in 
the Revue des Deux Mondes, published separately as Frederic II. and Maria 

Theresa. 
8 Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats-und ftechtsc/eschichte, iv. § 583. 



A. d. Germany. 401 

Oppeln secured at the same time, by an hereditary alliance. In 1623 
duke John George was placed under the ban by the emperor Ferdi- 
nand II. (p. 309), as an adherent of Frederic V., the elector palatine, 
and in spite of the Peace of Westphalia (p. 316, B.) neither he nor 
his heirs had been reinstated. 2. The elector Joachim II. had made 
an hereditary alliance in 1537 with the duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and 
Wohlau, which Ferdinand I. had forbidden as king of Bohemia and feu- 
dal superior of the duke. After the extinction of the ducal house (1675) 
Austria took possession of the inheritance. In 1686 Frederic William, 
the Great Elector, renounced the Silesian duchies, in return for the 
cession of the circle of Schwiebus. The latter, however, was secured 
to Austria by a secret agreement with the prince elector, and was restored 
by him, as elector Frederic III., in 1695. 

1740. Occupation of Silesia by Frederic's troops. Capture of Glo- 
gau. 

1741, April 10. Victory of Mollwitz (Schiverin). 

1741. Secret alliance of Nymphenburg 1 against Austria concluded 
May. by France, Bavaria, and Spain, afterwards joined by Saxony, 

and lastly by Prussia. 
The allied French (Belle-Isle) and Bavarian army invaded Austria 
and Bohemia. Prague taken in alliance with the Saxons. Charles 
Albert caused himself to be proclaimed archduke in Linz, while 
Frederic II. received homage in Silesia. Charles Albert was elected 
emperor in Frankfort as 

1742-1745. Charles VII. 

Meantime Maria Theresa had gone to Hungary. Diet at 
Presburg ; enthusiasm of the Hungarian nobility ; 2 two armies raised; 
alliance concluded with England. An Austrian army conquered Ba- 
varia where Maria Theresa received the homage of Munich; a second 
besieged the French in Prague. 

1742. The victory of Frederic at Czaslau and Chotusitz, and Maria 
May 17. Theresa's desire to rid herself of a dangerous enemy led to 

the separate 
3L742, June and July. Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Aus- 
tria and Prussia : 1. Frederic withdrew from the alliance 
against Maria Theresa. 2. Austria ceded to Prussia upper and lower 
Silesia and the county of Glatz, retaining only the principality of Teschen 
and the southwestern part of the principalities of Neisse, Troppau, 
and Jagerndorf, the Oppa forming the boundary. 3. Prussia assumed 
the debt upon Silesia held by English and Dutch creditors, to the 
amount of 1,700,000 rix dollars. 

Austria prosecuted the war against the allies with success, driving 

1 J. G. Droysen, Abhandlungen (zur neueren Geschichte) 1876, claimed that 
the document which was published as the Traite de Nymphenbourg was a 
forgery; Schlosser and L. v. Eanke consider it genuine. Be that as it may 
it is certain that new engagements (according to JPlassan, Hist, de la dipt., a 
formal Traite d' alliance offensive) were entered into at Nymphenburg by Ba- 
varia and France, and also that a treaty was concluded between France and 
Spain. 

2 The truth of the well-known tale of the exclamation Moriamur pro rege nos- 
tro Maria Theresa is, however, disputed, on good grounds. 

26 



402 Modern History. A. D. 

them entirely out of Bohemia, in 1742, and Bavaria (1743) ; the prag- 
matic army (English, Hanoverians, Hessians), under king George II., 
defeated the French in the 

1743. Battle of Dettingen. The emperor Charles VII. was a ref- 
June 27. ugee in Frankfort. 

These Austrian successes and the treaties with Sardinia and 
Saxony in 1743 made the king of Prussia anxious about his new ac- 
quisitions. He concluded a second alliance with Charles VII. and 
France, and began the 

1744-1745. Second Silesian War, 

by forcing his way through Saxony with 80,000 men (" impe- 
rial reinforcements "), and invading Bohemia. He took Prague, but, 
deserted by the French, was soon driven back into Saxony, 1744. 

1744. East Friesland, upon the extinction of the reigning house, fell 
to Prussia (p. 368). 

1745. Alliance between Austria, Saxony, England, and Holland 
Jan. against Prussia, The French and Bavarians took Munich. 

Charles VII. died (1745, Jan.). 

His son Maximilian Joseph concluded the 
1745, April. Separate Peace of Fiissen, with Austria. 1. Aus- 
tria restored all conquests to Bavaria. 2. The elector of 
Bavaria surrendered his pretensions to Austria and promised Francis 
Stephen, the husband of Maria Theresa, his vote at the imperial elec- 
tion. 

The French under marshal Maurice of Saxony, son of Augustus II. 
and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark, defeated the pragmatic 
army in the 

1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (Irish Brigade), 
and began the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. 
Frederic the Great defeated the Austrians and Saxons under 
Charles of Lorraine in the 
1745, June 4. Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in Silesia, and the 

Austrians alone in the 
Sept. 30. Battle of Soor, in northeastern Bohemia. 

By the election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, the 

1745-1806- House of Lorraine-Tuscany (p. 399) ac- 
ceded to the imperial throne in the person of the emperor, 
1745-1765- Francis I. 

After a victory of the Prussian general, Leopold of Dessau, over 
the Saxons at Kesseldorf, Dec. 15, the 

1745* Dec. 25. Peace of Dresden was concluded between 
Prussia and Austria (Saxony). 

1. Ratification of the Peace of Breslau and Berlin in regard to the 
possession of Silesia. 2. Frederic II. recognized Francis I. as em- 
peror. 3. Saxony paid Prussia one million rix dollars. 

After the flower of the English army had been recalled to England, 
where they were needed in the contest with the pretenders (p. 438), 
Marshal Saxe obtained at Raucous (1746) a second victory 



A. D. Germany. 403 

over the allies of Austria and completed the conquest of the Austrian 
Netherlands. 

At the same time, the naval war between France and England, and 
the war in Italy between Spain, France, and Austria, were carried on 
with varying fortune. Sardinia had concluded peace with Austria 
as early as 1743. At last the empress of Russia, Elizabeth (p. 411), 
joined the combatants as the ally of Austria and sent an army to the 
Khine. Congress, and finally, 

1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1. Reciprocal restoration of all conquests. 2. Cession of Parma, 
Piacenza, and Guastalla to the Spanish Infant, Don Philip, making 
the second secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. 

The following guaranties were given : that Silesia should belong 
to Prussia ; that the pragmatic sanction should be sustained in Austria; 
that the house of Hanover should retain the succession in its German 
states and in Great Britain. 

Change in the relations of European states induced by the rise of 
Prussia to the rank of a great power. Envy between Prussia and 
Austria j the latter seeing a disgrace in the loss of Silesia to a smaller 
power, and intriguing for the recovery of the lost province. Thus 
began the 

1756-1763. Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War. 

Cause : Before the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Maria Theresa had 
concluded a defensive alliance with Frederic's personal enemy, 
Elizabeth, empress of Russia (May, 1746). Secret articles of this 
treaty provided for the reunion of Silesia with Austria under certain 
specified conditions. In Sept. 1750, George II. of England, moved 
by anxiety for his principality of Hanover, signed the main treaty, 
the secret articles being excepted. Saxony (minister, count Briihl) 
signed the treaty unconditionally. Prince Kaunitz (until 1753 Aus- 
trian ambassador in France, then chancellor of the empire in Vienna) 
succeeded in promoting a reconciliation between the cabinets of Ver- 
sailles and Vienna, and securing the Marquise de Pompadour in favor 
of an Austrian alliance. Formation of a party inimical to the Prus- 
sian alliance at the French court. 

Maria Theresa and Kaunitz induced England to conclude a new 
subsidy treaty with Russia in 1755. In June of the same year, how- 
ever, hostilities broke out between England and France in North 
America without any declaration of war. Conflict at Newfoundland. 
Dreading a French attack upon Hanover, George II. concluded, in 
January, 1756, a treaty of neutrality with Frederic at Westminster, 
which caused a rupture between England and Russia. Kaunitz made 
skillful use of the indignation at Versailles over the treaty of West- 
minster. In May, 1756, conclusion of a defensive alliance between 
France and Austria. In June, 1756, war broke out between France 
and England, in Europe. 

Frederic, well informed concerning the alliances of the powers, and 
knowing that Russia and France were not in condition to take the of- 



404 Modern History. A. D. 

fensive against him in 1756, decided to take his enemies by surprise. 1 

1756. Frederic invaded Saxony with 67,000 men. Capture of 
Dresden (Aug.). 

Oct. 1. Victory over the Austrians at Lobositz. 

Surrender of 18,000 Saxons, who were compelled to serve in 
the Prussian army (Oct. 16). 

1757. War declared upon Frederic in the name of the empire. He 
was threatened with the ban. Hanover, Hesse, Brunswick, and 

Gotha, however, continued in alliance with Prussia. Treaty between 
Austria and Russia (Jan.) concerning the partition of the Prussian 
monarchy. Offensive treaty between Austria and France (May), 
also looking to the division of Prussia. Sweden joined the alliance 
against Frederic upon receiving the province of Pommerania, but her 
part in the war was unimportant. Alliance between Prussia and 
England (Jan. 1757) extended into a subsidy treaty (April, 1758). 

1757. The Prussians invaded Bohemia in four columns. 

May 6. Victory of Frederic at Prague over the Austrians. 
Death of Schwerin. Frederic besieged Prague and attacked 
Daun, who was coming to the relief. 
June 18. Defeat of Frederic at Kollin. Evacuation of Bohemia. 

The French reached the Weser. 
June 26. Victory of the French at Hastenbeck over Frederic's 

allies (duke of Cumberland, second son of George II.). 
Aug. 30. Victory of the Russians (Apraxin) over the Prussians 
(Lehwald), whom they outnumbered, in the battle of Gross- 
jagerndorf. The Russians withdrew from Prussia and did not 
utilize their victory. 
Sept. 8. Treaty of the Monastery of Zeven (duke of Cumberland 
and Richelieu), according to which the French occupied Han- 
over. The treaty was, however, rejected by the English gov- 
ernment. 
Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, brother of the ruling duke, re- 
ceived the command against the French. A second French army 
under Soubise joined the imperial army with the purpose of liberating 
Saxony. 

Nov. 5. Victory of Frederic at Rossbach over the French and 

the imperial army (Seydlitz). 
Frederic led his victorious army to Silesia, where the Austrians 

had defeated and captured the duke of Brunswick-Bevem in 

the 
Nov. 22. Battle of Breslau. 
Dec. 5. Victory of Frederic at Leuthen over the Austrians 

{Charles of Lorraine and Daun). 

1758. Frederic in Moravia • unsuccessful siege of Olmutz. Advance 
of the Russians under Fermor, to join the Austrians. In the 
west, Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French back across the 
Rhine, and defeated them in the 

1 Cf. A. Schafer, Gesch. des Siebenjahrigen Krieges, 2 vols. 1867-1874 
Duncker ; in v. Sybels, Hist.-Zeits. 1808, aud I*, v. Kanke, Der Ursprunq 
des siebenjahrigen Krieges, 1871. 



A. D. Germany. 405 

1758. June 23. Battle of Crefeld. After the conquest of Prus- 
sia as far as the Mark the Russians advanced. Bloody 

Aug. 25. Victory of Frederic (Seydlitz) at Zorndorf (not far 
from Kiistriri) over the Russians. 
Austrians advanced upon Lusatia. The king hastened to the aid 
of his brother Henry and wa's defeated in the 

Oct. 14. Battle of Hochkirch (near Bautzen) by Daun. Never- 
theless he maintained himself in Saxony and Silesia. 

1759. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated by the French (duke of 
Broglie) 

April 13. In the skirmish of Bergen near Frankf ort-on-the-Main. 

Broglie was joined by a second French army under Contades, 

but they were both defeated by Ferdinand in the 
Aug. 1. Battle of Minden. 

The Russians advanced anew and defeated general Wedell 
July 23. (appointed dictator by the king) at Kay. The king was 

unable to prevent their union with the Austrians under Laudon. 

Severe 
Aug. 12. Defeat of Frederic at Kunersdorf (Frankfort- 

on-the-Oder) by the Austrians and Russians, who were at first 

defeated. Dresden captured by the imperial army. 
Nov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrounded by Daun at Maxen 

and captured with 13,000 men. 

1760. Fouque defeated and captured in the 

June 23. Battle of Landshut, by the Austrians. Futile siege of 
Dresden. 

Aug. 15. Victory of Frederic at Pfaffendorf (Liegnitz) over the 
Austrians under Laudon. 
The king prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians. 

Oct. Berlin surprised and burnt by the Russians (Tottleben), who 
retreated upon the approach of the king. Bloody 

Nov. 3. Victory of Frederic at Torgau (Ziethen) over the Aus- 
trians under Daun. 

1761. Frederic encamped at Bunzelwitz (near Schweidnitz), op- 
posite the united Austrians (Laudon) and Russians (Buturlin), 
who did not venture on a decisive battle. 

Separation of the united armies. Schweidnitz captured by the Aus- 
trians, Kolberg by the Russians. Frederic, who was deprived of the 
English subsidies by the accession of George III. (1760), was in great 
distress. The 

1762. Jan. 5. Death of Elizabeth of Russia was the salvation of 
Prussia. Her successor Peter III., an admirer of Frederic, 
concluded 

March 16. The truce of Stargard with Prussia, and soon after the 
May 5. Peace of St. Petersburg : Russia restored her conquests ; 

both parties renounced all hostile alliances. This peace caused 

the 
May 22. Peace of Hamburg with Sweden : status quo ante helium. 

The alliance between Russia and Prussia was soon broken off 



406 Modern History. A. D. 

by the deposition of Peter III. (July 9). His successor, Catharine II., 
recalled her troops from Frederic's army ; nevertheless their inactiv- 
ity upon the field contributed to the 

1762. Victory of Frederic at Burkersdorf (Reichenbach) over 
July 21. the Austrians (Daun). After Prince Henry in the 

Oct. 29. Battle of Freiberg had defeated the Austrians and the 
imperial forces, and the preliminaries of the peace at Fontaine- 
bleau (p. 439) between England and France had made it certain that 
the French armies would be withdrawn from Germany, Austria and 
Prussia concluded the 

1763. Peace of Hubert (u)sburg. 

Feb. 15. 1. Ratification of the peace of Breslau and Berlin, and that 
of Dresden, i. e. Prussia retained Silesia. 2. Prussia promised 
her vote for the archduke Joseph at the election of the king of Rome. 
Saxony (restoration to the status quo) and the empire were included 
in the peace. 

Frederic's endeavors to heal the wounds inflicted by the war upon 
his kingdom. Distribution of the magazine stores. Remission of 
taxes for several provinces. Establishment of district banks, of the 
Bank (1765) and the Maritime Company (1772) at Berlin. Afterwards, 
however, introduction of an oppressive financial administration; tobacco 
and coffee were made government monopolies. 

Drainage of the marshes along the Oder, Werthe, and Netze. 
Canal of Plauen, Finow, and Bromberg. 

Reform of the jurisdiction. Codification of the common law by 
grand chancellor von Carmer, a part of which was published in 1782. 

1765-1790. Joseph II., emperor, 

for the Austrian lands co-regent only, with his mother Maria 
Theresa, until 1780, and without much influence. 

1778-1779- War of the Bavarian Succession. 1 

Cause: Extinction of the electoral house of Bavaria with 
Maximilian Joseph (1777). Charles Theodore, elector palatine, the 
legal heir of the Bavarian lands, as head of the house of Wittelsbach, 
and in consequence of various treaties, was persuaded by Joseph II. 
to recognize certain old claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and a part 
of the upper Palatinate. Treaty of Vienna (1778, Jan.). Occupation 
of lower Bavaria by Austrian troops. Charles Theodore was childless ; 
his heir presumptive was Charles Augustus Christian, duke of the pala- 
tinate of Zweibriicken (Deux-ponts). Frederic II. opened secret ne- 
gotiations with this wavering and irresolute prince through count 
Eustachius von Gorz and encouraged him, under promise of assistance, 
to make a formal declaration of his rights against the Austrian claims. 
Saxony and Mecklenburg, also incited by Frederic, protested as heirs 
presumptive of a part of the Bavarian inheritance. As direct nego- 
tiations between Austria and Prussia were without result, Joseph and 
Frederic joined their armies, which were already drawn up face to 
face on the boundary of Bohemia and Silesia. 

Saxony allied with Prussia. No battle in this short war. Frederic 
1 Cf. Manso, (Jesch. d. preuss. Staats seit dem Hubertsb. Fricden. 



A. d. Germany. 407 

and prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of 
forcing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Elbe, or of 
getting around it. The armies maintained their positions of obser- 
vation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn 
prince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant 
skirmishes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between 
Maria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led in the 
following spring, with the help of Russian and French mediation, to a 
truce and a congress, and soon after to the 

1779, May. Peace of Teschen. 

1. The treaty of Vienna with Charles Theodore was abro- 
gated. Austria retained only the district of the Inn, in Bavaria, i. e. 
the part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. 
Austria agreed to the future union of the margravates of Ansbach 
and Baireuth, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony obtained some 
hitherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars; 
Mecklenburg the privilegium de non. appellando. 

1780-1790- Joseph II. Period of his reign alone 
and of his attempts at reform. 1 

The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa (f 1780), 
with its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the 
essentially revolutionary reign of Joseph II., whereby the ancient 
forms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant 
and stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in 
sympathy with the enlightenment of the century. Joseph II. is the best 
representative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its 
philanthropy and its devotion to right, and again of its severity and 
lack of consideration, where there was question of executing some 
favorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, 
and entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph 
pursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the 
privileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial inde- 
pendence, and of establishing unity in the administration (central- 
ization). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, with 
the exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance, 
not one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the 
Austrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality. 

Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries 
were closed and 36,000 members of orders released. There still re- 
mained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns. 
For those which remained a new organization was prescribed. The 
connection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, 
schools were established with the property of the churches, innova- 
tions in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior 
organization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope 
Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes. 
Reform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to 
fixed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal 
servitude among the peasants. 

1 Hausser ^Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs d. Grossen. 



408 Modern History. A, D. 

Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch ; the emperor arbitrarily 
annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that 
the Schelde, which had been closed by the Treaty of Westphalia to 
the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. 
Finally, after four years of quarreling, French mediation brought 
about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew his demands 
in consideration of ten million florins. 

Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. His 
encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the 
bishop of Passau (1783). 

The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of German 
princes (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, 
and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a " combination 
within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own min- 
isters and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into 
favor until news was received of 

1785- Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory, 
according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of 
Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands 
(Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom of 
Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Russia 
supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and threats to 
induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Zweibriicken (Deux- 
ponts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Fred~ 
eric the Great, who, a year before his death (f 1786, Aug. 17), suc- 
ceeded in forming the 
1785, July. League of the German Princes 

between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which 
was afterward joined by Brunswick, Mainz, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Meck- 
lenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands. 

Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in 
Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna pro- 
duced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted 
its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a 
revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789). War with the Turks (p. 414). 
Death of Joseph II. (1790). 

1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor. 

Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insur- 
rection, but restored the old constitution and the old privileges. A 
conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 
31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure 
more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Russia 
(p. 414). {See pp. 447, 487.) 



A.. D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 409 



§ 4. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND. 

(See pp. 375, 397.) 
Denmark (and Norway). 

Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete posses- 
sion of Schleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., 
Frederic V., Christian VII. {count Bemstorff, minister), a long interval 
of peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revo- 
lutionary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II. by the 
German Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling 
companion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the 
queen, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown 
in 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliana Maria) and be- 
headed along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of 
Holstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of 
Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, 
which was in consequence entirely incorporated with the Danish 
monarchy. 

Sweden. 

Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel 
(p. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions 
of two parties of the nobility, Hiite, " hats ; " (French) and Mutzen 
" caps ; " (Russian). Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), 
ended by the disgraceful 
1743. Peace of Abo. 

1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, 
whereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure. 2. 
The succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to Adolf 
Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp. 

1751-1818- The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden. 

Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent 
such reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was 
rather an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in 
the Seven Years' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus III. (1771- 
1792), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a blood- 
less revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a 
co-regent to a simple council ; the estates, however, retained the right 
of veto against an offensive war. 

1788-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of 
Hogland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where 
the officers of his army refused him further obedience. He found 
support among the people (Stockholm and Dalecarlia). The estates 
granted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even 
an offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus con- 
cluded the war by a peace (at Werelce) which was without advantage 
to Sweden. 
1792, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarstrom. 

(See pp. 44?, W.) 



410 



Modern History, 



A. D. 



RUSSIA AND POLAND. {See pp. 375, 397.) 
Alexis, f 1676. 



Feodor III. 

t 1682. 



Ivan till 1689. 



I 
Sophia. 



I 
Catharine, 

duchess of 
Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin. 



Anna, 
duchess of 
Brunswick. 



Ivan IV. 

till 1741, 

t 1764. 



Peter the Great. 

f 1725, m. 

Catharine I, 

t 1727. 



Anna, 
f 1740. 



Alexis, 
t 1718. 



Peter II. 

t 1730. 



Anna, 

duchess of 

Holstein- 

Gottorp. 



Peter III., 

f 1762. 
m. Catharine II., 

t 1796. 



Elizabeth, 
f 1762. 



The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored 
the Russian reaction, was condemned to execution by his father, and 
died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a 
law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) 
which allowed the reigning sovereign to appoint his own successor, 
by his wife 

1725-1727. Catharine I., who was governed by prince 
Menschikoff, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from 
the lowest rank to be the first minister of state. After the sudden 
death of the empress there followed, under her will, 

1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter I. 
He was for four months under the influence of Menschikoff, 
who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of Dol- 
goruky and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon 
Peter II. 's early death, 

1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder 
brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was 
ruled by Miinnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biron (properly 
Buhren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and took un- 
bridled vengeance on his enemies, particularly the Doigoruky, In 
1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the em- 
press, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's in- 
fluence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession 
(p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in 
combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Miinnich (1736- 
1739), vlzojf was the only acquisition. The empress Anna was suc- 
ceeded by her grand-nephew, the minor 



A. D. Denmark, Sweden^ Russia, Poland. 411 

1740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Bruns- 
wick, conducted the government for a short time after Miin- 
nich had accomplished the fall of Biron, who was sent to 
Siberia. A military revolution placed upon the throne 

1741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the 
Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding 
government, including Miinnich, were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. 
Capricious rule of women and favorites ; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, 
to whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was over- 
thrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War 
with Sweden, see p. 410. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years' 
War, p. 404. According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded 
by the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp. 

1762 — X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. 

1762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he began 
with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed 
(July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the 
energetic and immoral 

1762-1796. Catharine II. 

The two brothers Orloff caused the emperor to be strangled, 
whether with the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated. 
The fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells 
against the empress. 

Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, 
the restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy 
under Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son. 

After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance 
with Frederic II., procured the election of her protege 
1764-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski (f 1797), as king of Poland. 
At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents 
of the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catho- 
lics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of 
Bar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king. 
In the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by 
a Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the 
confederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war 
aroused the envy of Prussia and Austria, which led to an attempt to 
secure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the 

1772. First division of Poland. 

1. Russia received the region between the Duna, Dnieper, and 
Drutsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria : East 
Gallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia : Polish Prussia ( West Prussia, 
with the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Ermeland), which the Teu- 
tonic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze dis- 
trict. 

The assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was 
extorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the 



412 Modern History. A. D. 

division to preserve the Polish constitution, which was another name 
for anarchy. 

1768-1774. Catharine's first war against the Turks 
was successfully conducted. The Turkish fleet was defeated 
and burned by the Russians off the island of Chios (Tschesme, 1770). 
During the war revolt of the Cossack Pugacheff, who gave himself out 
as Peter III. The success of Romanzoff, who surrounded the Grand 
Vizier at Shumla, brought about the 

1774. July 12. Peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. 

1. Russia received Kinburn • Yenikale, and Kertch in the Crimea, 
and their districts; and obtained the right of free navigation in all 
Turkish waters for trading vessels. 2. The Tatars in the Crimea, 
and along the Kuban, became " independent." 3. Restoration of con- 
quests in Moldavia and Wallachia to their princes, whose interests, as 
opposed to the Porte, were henceforward represented at Constantinople 
by Russia. 

[" Permanently important provisions of the treaty of Kutschouc 
Kainardji : I. The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey 
and brought under Russian influence. II. Russia obtained a firm 
footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea ; pushing back the 
Turkish frontier to the river Boug. III. The frontier line between 
the two powers in Asia was left much as it was before the war. IV. 
Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople and for certain 
privileges for Christians in Turkey. V. Russia exacted promises for 
the better government of the principalities, reserving a right of re- 
monstrance if these were not kept. VI. Russia obtained a declara- 
tion of her right of free commercial navigation in Turkish waters. 
All subsequent controversies between the Porte and Russia may be 
referred to one of these six heads." — T. E. Holland : Treaty rela- 
tions of Russia and Turkey from 1774-1853.] 

Prince Potemkin, Catharine's favorite, soon became all-powerful 
and conducted all state affairs according to his humor and his arbi- 
trary will. 

1780. Armed neutrality at sea, 

at first introduced for the protection of commerce during the 
North American war (p. 428). The subject was broached by Rus- 
sia, and the idea gradually found support from Denmark, Sweden 
(1780), Prussia, Austria (1782), Portugal (1783); Spain, and France 
recognized the principle. England prevented the addition of Holland 
to the league by a declaration of war. 

Demands of the Armed Neutrality. 1. Free passage of neutral 
ships from port to port and along the coasts of combatants. 2. Free- 
dom of an enemy's goods in neutral ships (le pavilion couvre la 
marchandise), with the exception of such goods as were contraband of 
war. 3. Exact definition of a blockaded port ; a merely nominal 
("paper ") blockade, that is, one not enforced by a sufficient number 
of ships of war in the vicinity of the specified harbor, was declared 
to be inadmissible. 

Plan of Catharine and Potemkin to drive the Turks out of Europe, 



A. D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland, 413 

and to restore the Greek empire, as a secondogeniture of the 
1783. imperial house of Russia, under grand-duke Constantine. The 
1787. Crimea (Tauria) incorporated with Russia. Catharine's jour- 
ney through southern Russia to Kherson. Shameless represen- 
tation of a nourishing condition of the country by Potemkin 
the Taurian ! Meeting with Joseph II. 

1787-1792. Catharine's second war with the Turks 

{Potemkin and Suvaroff), 
in alliance with Austria (Laudon and the prince of Coburg). Potem- 
kin stormed Otchakoff (1788), victory, in union with the Austrians at 
Fokchany and on the Rimnik, Potemkin conquered Bender (1789), Su- 
varoff stormed Ismail (1790). Victory at Matchin. Peace between 
Austria and Turkey at Sistova (1791). Austria received Old- 
Orsova only. Potemkin died 1791. Between Russia and the Porte 

1792. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy. 

Russia received Otchakoff and the land between the lower 
Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, the latter river becoming the boundary. 

1793- Second division of Poland. 

The Poles had attempted to improve the war of Russia and 
Austria with the Turks, and the seemingly friendly aspect of Prussia, 
by putting an end to their dependence upon the neighboring states, 
and to the anarchical condition of affairs at home. Alliance with 
Prussia (1790), which promised to help the Poles if foreign nations 
should attempt to interfere in their internal affairs. The new con- 
stitution of 1791, drawn up by Ignaz Potocki and his friends, 1. 
converted the elective monarchy into an hereditary monarchy, appoint- 
ing the elector of Saxony successor of the king Stanislaus Poniatowski 
and making the throne hereditary in the house of Saxony ; 2. con- 
ferred the executive power upon the king and a council of state, the 
legislative power upon a diet of the kingdom in two houses, with 
abolition of the liberum veto, and 3. made some concessions to the mid- 
dle classes and the peasants, permitting, for example, admission to 
the rank of the nobility, all of whose privileges, however, were con- 
firmed. 

In opposition to this constitution there was formed the Confederacy 
of Targowitz {Felix Potocki), under the protection of Russia, which 
had guaranteed the old constitution. A Russian army invaded Poland. 
Brave, but futile resistance under prince Poniatowski and Kosciuszko, 
who were defeated at Dubienka. The king joined the confederacy of 
Targowitz ; the new constitution was repealed. Under pretense of 
suppressing Jacobinism, Prussian troops entered Poland. Annexa- 
tion of Danzig (1793). Russia and Prussia issued a common procla- 
mation which announced to the Poles that Russia and her former 
allies had already come to an understanding. At the diet of Grodno, 
the consent of the nation to the new cessions, was extorted. 

Russia took the larger part of Lithuania, being all that remained, 
and Volhynia and Podolia ; Prussia took Danzig and Thorn, and the 
whole of Great Poland (now called South Prussia). Besides all this. 



414 Modern History. A. D. 

Russia enforced a treaty of union, whereby she received : 1. free 
entrance for her troops into Poland ; 2. the conduct of all future 
wars ; 3. the right of confirming all treaties made by Poland with 
foreign powers. 

1794. Revolution in Poland, under the lead of Kosciuszko. The 
Russians in Warsaw," under Igelslrom, were in part massacred, 

in part driven from the city. The Prussians entered Poland, defeated 
Kosciuszko at Szczekoziny (pr. Shtchekoziny), took Cracow, but be- 
sieged Warsaw in vain. The Russians were victorious at Brzesc and 
at Maciejowice (pr. Matchevitz). Kosciuszko captured. 1 Storm of 
Prague by Suvaroff; massacre in the city. 

1795. Third and last partition of Poland. 

At this partition, the three powers took possession of the fol- 
lowing parts of Poland : 

Prussia : Masovia with Warsaw, the region between the Vistula, 
Bug, and Niemen (New East Prussia), part of Cracow (New Silesia) ; 
2. Austria : West Galicia as far as the Bug. 3. Russia : all that 
remained towards the east. The powers obtained, by the three parti- 
tions, about the following increase of territory : 

Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 inhabitants. 
Austria, 45,000 " " " 3,700,000 

Prussia, 57,000 " " " 2,500,000 " 

1795. The annihilation of the kingdom of Poland led to the incor- 
poration of Curland with Russia. Curland, legally under the 
overlordship of Poland, had been practically under Russian supremacy 
since 1737, when the empress Anna (411) had obtained the duchy 
for Biron against the claims of the Marshal Saxe. (See pp. 4,47, 1^7.) 

§ 5. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. (Seep. 394.) 

1701-1808 (1814-x). The House of Bourbon in Spain. 

Philip V. (1701-1746). Bloody punishment of the adherents of 
the archduke Charles of Austria ; particularly in Aragon and Cata- 
lonia. Suppression of all old constitutions and rights (Fueros) which 
remained. The quadruple alliance against Spain, see p. 397, the par- 
ticipation of Spain in the war of the Polish Succession and the estab- 
lishment of a secundogeniture in Naples, see p. 398. 

Under Philip and his successor Ferdinand VI., 1746-1759, par- 
ticipation in the war of the Austrian succession, see p. 401. Ferdi- 
nand was succeeded by his half-brother 

Charles III., 1759-1788, previously king of the Two Sicilies, p. 417. 
Participation of Spain in the Seven Years' War between Eng- 
land and France (Peace of Paris), see p. 441, and in the war of 
American Independence (Peace of Versailles), see p. 433. A popu- 
lar revolt against Italian favorites of the king, was made the pretext 

1 Kosciuszko never made use of the well-known expression "Finis Po- 
lonice," as he himself openly and with indignation declared. 



A. r>. Portugal. — Italy. 415 

for the banishment of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was exe- 
cuted by the minister Aranda. 

Portugal. 

Since 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again 
reached a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house 
of Braganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable administra- 
tion, and brought into complete dependence upon England by a com- 
mercial treaty with that power. In the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel 
(1750-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, endeav- 
ored to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, 
in the same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). 
After the terrible 

1755. Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon, 

in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pombal caused the 
ruined portion of the capital to be splendidly rebuilt. An unsuccess- 
ful attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for ban- 
ishing the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the 
minister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was 
followed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The 
order of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sen- 
tenced to death, but pardoned. {See pp. 4,4,7, 487.) 

§ 6. ITALY. (Seep. 328.) 

Savoy. 

The dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of 
Utrecht, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to 
increase their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, 
by skillful use of political relations. During the war of the Austrian 
succession they acquired a considerable extent of land from Milan 
(p. 400). 

Genoa. 

The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her free- 
dom and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her 
territory {Savoy, France, Austria). In 1730 the inhabitants of the 
\sland of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, 
revolted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a Ger- 
man adventurer, Baron Neuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time 
as King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the 
assistance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody bat- 
tles (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugating the island, 
which the Genoese ceded to them in 1768. 

Venice. 

The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persis= 
tence in the old aristocratic forms, politically immired, sank into an 
irremediable decline. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth 



416 Modern History. A. D. 

century in the glorious wars against the Turks. The latter surprised 
Candia and conquered a part of the island (1645-1647). The Vene- 
tian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the much 
stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral Mocenigo, 
1651, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello annihilated the Turkish fleet 
by the Dardanelles (1656), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at Chios, 
but was himself defeated in a second combat. New naval victories 
over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid from 
Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, to 
leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alli- 
ance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John Sobieski 
of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Vene- 
tians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began the 
conquest of the Peloponnesus (Moved) in 1685. Count Konigsmark 
landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the penin- 
sula. Morosini captured Athens ; a Venetian bomb blew up the Par- 
thenon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected doge, 
landed in Negroponte (Eubcea), but the plague in the army (Konigs- 
mark f ) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowilz, 1699 
(see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulated 
the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred of 
their new subjects by the rigor of their administration. 

Tuscany. 

Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as the 
influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of the 
Medici became extinct ; the later members of this house, sunken in 
dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 1737, 
the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398) ; Leopold 
II., upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his second 
son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was an Austrian secundogeniture from 
1765-1859. 

Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for the 
Spanish Bourbons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859. 

Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of the 
house of Este. 

Papal States. 

In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life stead- 
ily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occu- 
pied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of the 
great families of the nobility. Among the Popes of the eighteenth 
century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 1773 
yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the order 
of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea of 
reform (sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redemptor 
noster. 

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Bour- 
bons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when the 



A. d. America: British Colonies. 417 

latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicily were 
governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest 
of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual 
and material welfare little or nothing was done. {See pp. fyfyl, 1+87. ~) 

§ 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES. (See p. 365.) 

1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification 
of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut 
by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the former to 
the latter. 

1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and 
allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the 
Spanish border by governor Craven. 

1718. Captain Woods Rogers, appointed governor of New Providence, 
suppressed the buccaneers in the West Indies ; extirpation 
of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of 
that colony. 

1719-1729. Overthrow of proprietary government in Carolina. 
In 1719 the people of Carolina, having for some time chafed under 
the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for 
the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly prov- 
ing unruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey 
the proclamation ; they elected a new governor and council, and op- 
posed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed 
defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show 
more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish 
expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Provi- 
dence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported 
by the agent for the colony in England, the royal council declared the 
charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a pro- 
visional royal government ; governor Nicholson (1721). In 1729 an 
agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of 
parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest in 
the colony ; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary 
power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and 
councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 
1720. William Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade 

between the Indians and the French. 
1722. In New "York, governor Burnet continued his efforts to ob- 
struct the French in their policy of hemming in the English 
sea-coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at 
Oswego ; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The 
Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy as 
a sixth nation). 
1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War with the Abinakis, 
who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settle- 
ments, and further provoked by the advice of Rasles, a French 
Jesuit at Norridgewock. Futile attempt of the English to seize 
Rasles was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon 
war was declared, Norridgewock burnt and Rasles killed. 



418 Modern History. A. D. 

1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Span- 
iards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony 
in Carolina. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upon 
which he chastised the Indians. 

1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involved 
in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained from 
the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power to 
suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of 
representatives might adjourn, to two days. 

Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern In- 
dians, which was long kept. 
In New York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onon- 
dagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and Oneidas,- 
which were already under English protection. 

1728. Burnet governor of Massachusetts. He was at once involved 
in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed 
salary for the governor, which the court refused to grant, " be- 
cause it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna 
Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, 
of their own free accord, without compulsion." 
The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was sur- 
veyed and settled, running through the Dismal Swamp. 

3.729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina 
(p. 417). 

1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New York and 
Connecticut. 

1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thir- 
teen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia). 
It bemg thought desirable that the government should secure for 
England the western part of Carolina in order to prevent the French 
or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a 
charter for the lands between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers ex- 
tending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to 
James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees 
(twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the 
expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, which 
should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Lib- 
erty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhab- 
itants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving 
spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a 
chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor 
and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the 
first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savannah ; conciliation of the 
Indians by just purchase of lands and by kindness. Oglethorpe re- 
fused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. 
Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came 
to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees de- 
clared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony. 



a. d. America: British Colonies, 419 

1734. In New York arrest of Zenger, printer of the Weekly Jour- 
nal, for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 
1735. 

1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey. 

1739-1748. Great Britain at war with Spain. 

1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head 
of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia. Siege of 
St. Augustine. 

Settlement of the boundary dispute between Massachusetts 
and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony. 

Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Carthagena, 
broken up by disease. 

1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba. 

1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Georgia repulsed by Ogle- 
thorpe by stratagem. In this year Oglethorpe went to England 
and never returned to America. 

1744-1748. War between Great Britain and France, 

known in the American colonies as King George's War, 

in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession 

(p. 400). 

The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec 

jwas Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, 

of Acadia ; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with 

that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under 

that name. 

1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 
4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few 
English vessels. 

1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the 
colonies prevented by the arrival of a large French fleet at 
Nova Scotia under D'Anville, which spread consternation 
throughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of 
D'Anville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and 
the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accomplishing 
anything. 

1747. Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to 

press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the 
people ; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the dis- 
turbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men 
seized. 

1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between England, France, and 
Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests, Cape Breton 
was restored to the French (p. 404). 

Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the 
English crown, which gave great offense to the French. 
1750. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to Eng- 
land by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, hostilities sprang up be- 
tween the French and English there, owing to disputes over 
the boundaries. 



420 Modern History. A. d. 

1751. Governor Clinton, of New York, in association with South 
Carolina, Massachusetts and Connecticut, concluded a peace 
with the Six Nations. 

1752. The trustees of Georgia finding that the colony did not flourish 
under their care, gave up their charter, and the crown assumed 
control, and placed Georgia on the same footing with other 
royal colonies. 

The English parliament adopted the reformed or Gregorian 
calendar for England and the colonies (p. 438). 

1753. The growth of the British colonies extending more and more 
westward caused the disputes between England and France to 

grow to a head. The French claimed the Mississippi and the St. 
Lawrence, and all the region between from the Appalachians to the 
Spanish settlements in the west, and were intent on securing this re- 
gion by a line of forts directly back of the English colonies. Accord- 
ing to the English all French settlements within the territory of the 
colony of Plymouth (p. 293) were illegal ; they also claimed the 
whole region occupied by the Iroquois. The settlement of Georgia 
and the foundation of the Ohio Company were attempts to counter- 
act the progress of the French, and these moves in their turn were a 
cause of uneasiness to the French, who seized traders within the limits 
of the Ohio Company. As the lands of the company were within the 
territory of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of that colony, dis- 
patched George Washington to the forts on the Alleghany and the 
Ohio to remonstrate with the French (Oct. 31-Dec. 12). The com- 
mander of the Ohio forts promised to lay the remonstrance before 
the governor of Canada. 

1754. Virginia immediately sent a force to the Ohio, two companies 
of which were under Washington. In the advance upon Fort 

Du Quesne, at the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela, he 
captured a small French party, but was besieged in Fort Necessity, 
which he had erected, and forced to capitulate under condition of free 
withdrawal (July 4). 

June 19. Conference of colonial delegates at Albany with the Six 
Nations. By the advice of Benjamin Franklin the conference 
also drew up a plan of a union of all the colonies under a president 
appointed by the crown, with a grand council of delegates elected by 
the colonial assemblies, with a right of legislation subject to the veto 
of the president and the approval of the crown. Connecticut, object- 
ing to the veto power, refused to sign the proposal, which was after- 
wards rejected both by the colonies and the crown. 

1755-1763. War between England and France, called 
in the American colonies " The Old French and In- 
dian War ; " being a part of the Seven Years* War, 
in Europe, which was fought in Asia and Africa as well. 
War was not declared until the following year, but it is 
reckoned from 1755 (p. 404 and 438). 

1755. While a conference of the colonial governors with general 
Braddock, who was sent from England to take chief command, 



A. d. America : British Colonies, 421 

decided on three expeditions: 1. against Fort Du Quesne; 2. against 
the fort at Niagara ; 3. against the French fort at Crown Point in 
New York; a band of 3,000 Massachusetts troops under Winslow and 
Monckton captured forts Beausejour and Gaspereaux in the disputed dis- 
trict in Nova Scotia (June 16-17), and dispersed among the British 
colonies about 7,000 of the inhabitants who refused to take the oath of 
allegiance to England (" Evangeline "). 

Meantime general Braddock took the offensive at the head of the 
British regulars against Fort du Quesne, and fell into an ambuscade, 
in consequence of neglecting the advice of the provincial officers 
(Washington), and suffered a complete defeat and great loss in the 

1755, July 9. Battle of Fort du Quesne or " Braddock's defeat." 

Death of Braddock. 
Attack on Crown Point : Construction of Fort Edward on the 

east of the Hudson (Aug.). 

Sept. 8. Battle of Lake George ; defeat of the French under Dies- 
kau (f), by the provincial troops under Johnson. Construction 
of Fort William Henry at the south end of Lake George by the 
English. Fortification of Ticonderoga, between Lake George 
and Lake Champlain, by the French. 
The expedition to Niagara was subjected to so many delays that 

it was for the time abandoned. 

1756, Great Britain declared war on France. Earl of Loudoun com- 
mander-in-chief of forces in America. 

Aug. Forts Oswego and George captured by the marquis of Mont- 
calm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada, 
and destroyed. 
This disaster occasioned the abandonment of the projected enter- 
prises against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne and Eastern 
Canada. Fortifications of Georgia and Carolina (Fort Loudoun on the 
Tennessee river). The French constructed a system of forts in the 
region of the Illinois. 

1757, August 9. Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, 

massacre of the garrison, whose retreat to Fort Edward was 
guaranteed, by the Indians in Montcalm's army. 
In Massachusetts, controversy between the governor, Lord Lou- 
doun and the general court over the quartering of troops. 

In Pennsylvania, controversy between the governor and the as- 
sembly over a scheme of taxation ; the governor refusing his assent to 
the bill, the assembly demanded the assent as their right. 

1758, July 8. Repulse of Abercrombie before Ticonderoga. 

• Expedition against Louisburg (May 28-July 26). Cap- 
ture of the fortress (Amherst and Wolfe, July 26). 

Aug. 27. Capture of Fort Frontenac by Bradstreet. 

Nov. 25. Capture of Fort du Quesne by General Forbes. The 
fort was named Ft. Pitt (Pittsburg). 

1759, July 25. Capture of Fort Niagara by Sir William Johnson. 
July 26. Capture of Ticonderoga by Major-General Amherst. 

Expedition of Major-General Wolfe from Louisburg against Que- 
bec. Repulsed at the Montmorency ; Wolfe conducted his force by 



422 Modern History. A. D. 

night to the elevated plateau behind Quebec called the Plains of 
Abraham, where in the 

1759, Sept. 13. Battle of the Plains of Abraham the French 

under Montcalm were completely defeated. Death of Wolfe 
and Montcalm. Surrender of Quebec (Sept. 18). 

1760, Sept. 8. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the Eng- 

lish. 

1761, The writs of assistance in Massachusetts. The English 
government (Board of Trade reestablished 1695) having for 

some time adhered to a course of commercial restrictions and duties 
upon the colonies (all molasses charged with duty except that imported 
from the British West Indies, 1733 ; erection of rolling mills prohib- 
ited, 1750 ; the slave trade favored in spite of the opposition of the 
colonial legislatures of Virginia and Carolina, etc.) had roused a spirit 
of resistance throughout the colonies based on the perception that 
such duties were a form of taxation without representation. Hence 
so much evasion was practised that finally the custom house officials 
in Boston applied to the superior court of judicature {Thomas Hutch- 
inson, chief justice) for the issue of writs of assistance such as were 
granted by the exchequer in England. The case was argued for the 
colonists by Thacher, and especially by James Otis, (1725-1783), 
who urged the dangerous character of the writ as being servable by 
any officer against any person for any length of time, and accused the 
acts of trade as infringements of the charter. The court deferred its 
decision ; it would seem that the writs were ultimately granted, but 
that the officers did not venture to use them. 

1762, Expedition against Martinique, by the royal and provincial 
troops ; surrender of this island, of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. 
Vincent, and of all the other French West Indies. 

War between England and Spain (p. 439). 
July. Storm of Havana, which was surrendered to the English. 

1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, 
France, Spain, Portugal. (Preliminary articles 1762, 
Nov. 3, at Fontainebleau, p. 439). 

1. France ceded to England, Nova Scotia, or Acadia, Canada, 
Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river of St. Laic- 
->ence, reserving the right to fish and dry fish on a part of Newfound- 
land, and of fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence three leagues from 
the shore, and at a distance of fifteen leagues from Cape Breton • also 
the river and harbor of Mobile and everything on the left of the mid- 
dle of the Mississippi, the Iberville, and lakes Maarepas and Ponchar- 
train, except New Orleans, the navigation of the Mississippi to be 
free for both England and France ; also Grenada, St, Vincent, Do- 
minique, Tobago. In all ceded districts certain civil and religious 
rights were secured to the French inhabitants. England ceded to 
France the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence for fishing stations, not to be fortified, and Guadaloupe, 
Marigalante, Desirade, Martinique, Belleisle, St. Lucia, in the West 
Indies. 



A. D. America : British Colonies. 423 

2. Spain ceded to England Florida, and all other possessions east 
of the Mississippi ; Spain also gave up her claims to the Newfound- 
land fisheries ; England restored Havana to Spain and destroyed all 
English fortresses in Spanish America ; right to cut and transport 
dye wood reserved. 

3. France ceded to Spain the whole of Louisiana and New Or- 
leans by a previous treaty of Nov. 3, 1762. 

The English acquisitions were divided into the four governments 
of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. 

The number of inhabitants hi the old thirteen colonies at this time 
was about two millions. 

1763. The conspiracy of Pontiac. 

Pontiac was the chief of the Ottawas, a firm friend of the 
French ; relying on the vain hope of assistance from whom, he resolved 
to wrest from the English the border fortresses. To this end he 
formed an alliance of almost all the tribes of the Algonquin race, 
with the Wyandots and Senecas. The other nations of the Iroquois 
were with great difficulty kept quiet by the influence of Sir William 
Johnson. Pontiac had planned to open the attack by the treacher- 
ous seizure of the fort at Detroit on May 7. Foiled in this by the 
coolness of Gladwyn, the English commander, who had been previ- 
ously informed of the plot, the enraged chief opened the siege of 
the fort (May 9) and war broke out along the whole line from the 
Mississippi to Canada. In a short time Fort Pitt, Niagara, and De- 
troit, of all the border fortresses, alone remained in the hands of the 
English. In July Boquet forced his way, under severe fighting, to 
Fort Pitt, which he relieved. Pontiac maintained before Detroit the 
longest siege which the Indians ever executed, but on September 3, 
the garrison was relieved by a schooner from Niagara, and with the 
approach of winter the Indians withdrew. The western tribes were 
not subdued before 1765, but the danger was over. Pontiac did not 
long outlive his failure. 

1763, Paxton boys in Pennsylvania ; massacre of converted Indians. 
The peace gave to Great Britain time to enforce more vigorously 

that system of repression and taxation which the ministers thought 
the fitting method of dealing with the too independent colonists, while 
it gave the colonists time to reflect upon and to resent such a pro- 
cedure. 
1763-1765. George Grenville, prime minister. 

1764, March. Parliament voted that they had a right to tax the 

American colonies, though the colonies were not represented. 
Passage of the sugar act (" it is just and necessary that a reve- 
nue be raised in America ") and of an act for increasing the effi- 
ciency of the revenue service. 
Publication at Boston of " The Bights of the British Colonies as- 
serted and proved," by James Otis. Adoption of a resolution 
not to use British manufactures. 

1765, March. Passage of the Stamp Act; prescribing the use 
of stamped paper for legal documents, pamphlets, and news- 
papers throughout the colonies. (Speech of Colonel Barre.) 



424 Modern History. A. d. 

The news was received in America with the greatest indigna- 
tion. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia de- 

1765, May 30. nying the right of taxation, introduced by Patrick 

Henry (1736-1797). 
Oct. 7. Meeting of a congress of twenty eight delegates from Mas- 
sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina (Virginia, North 
Carolina, Georgia were not represented, but were in sympathy with the 
colonies) at New York in accordance with the proposition of Massa- 
chusetts. The assembly drew up petitions and memorials to the 
king and parliament, and adopted a "Declaration of rights and 
liberties " (Oct. 19). 

The arrival of stamp officers led to riots in various cities, as in Bos- 
ton, where the officer (Andrew Oliver) was burnt in effigy, his house 
and that of lieutenant-governor Hutchinson sacked, in New York, 
etc. Non-importation and non-consumption agreements. 
1765-1766. Rockingham prime minister. 

1766, March. Repeal of the Stamp Act, which had brought in no 

revenue {Pitt, Burke) ; examination of Benjamin Franklin 
(b. Jan. 17, 1706 ; d. Apr. 17, 1790) ; agent of Pennsylvania, 
before the commons. The repeal was accompanied by a de- 
claratory act, asserting that "parliament has power to bind the 
colonies in all cases whatsoever " (March, 1766). 

1766-1770. Duke of Grafton prime minister {Earl of Chatham 
privy seal). 

J 767. Duty imposed on glass, paper, painters' colors, and tea introduced 
into the colonies (this measure followed the defeat of the min- 
istry on the land tax in England, which cost the revenue a 
large sum). Out of the revenue thus collected fixed salaries 
were to be paid royal officials. 
New York having refused to make provision for troops quar- 
tered upon the colony, the legislative power of the assembly 
was suspended by parliament until compliance. 
Creation of a custom house and board of commissioners for 
America. 

1768. Petition of Massachusetts to the king ; circular letter to the 
other colonies. The British ministry demanded that the court 
rescind the circular letter ; the court refused to do so (92 to 17), 
whereupon governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Similar 
proceedings occurred in other colonies. 

June. The seizure of John Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a false en- 
try by the custom house officials in Boston, caused a riot, and 
the officials fled to Castle William. 

Oct. Arrival of British troops at Boston. The selectmen refused 
to provide quarters for the men. 
First settlement made in Tennessee. 

1769. Parliament adopted a resolution looking to the trial of acts of 
treason committed in the colonies in England. Resolutions of 
the house of burgesses in Virginia denouncing this position. 
The governor dissolved the assembly. Similar resolutions 
were adopted in other colonies. 



A. d. America : British Colonies. 425 

The general court of Massachusetts, refusing to do business 
while a guard was stationed at the state-house, was adjourned 
to Cambridge. Refusal to provide for the troops. Submission 
of the assembly in New York. 
1770-1782. Lord North prime minister. 

1770. The Boston massacre. In a broil between the populace 
March 5. and the British soldiers in King (State) street, three men 

were killed and eight wounded. The officer in command 
(Preston) was brought to trial, but acquitted (defended by 
John Adams and Josiah Quincy). 
March. Act repealing the duty on paper, glass, and painters' colors, 
but retaining that on tea. 

1771. Insurrection of the " regulators " in North Carolina sup- 
pressed by governor Tryon. 

Thomas Hutchinson (formerly lieutenant-governor) governor 
of Massachusetts (went to England, 1774). 

1772. Destruction of the British revenue schooner Gaspee, which 
June 10. had made itself very obnoxious to the people of Rhode Island, 

and now ran aground in pursuit of a packet. In spite of a 
large reward offered, no information concerning the offenders 
was ever given. 

Settlement of the boundary between North and South Caro- 
lina. 
4773. The Virginia assembly appointed a committee of correspond- 
ence for intercourse with the other colonies. 

The resolution of the colonies having caused a diminution both 
in the revenue and in the sale of tea, the British government 
agreed to relieve the East India Company of exportation duty 
if the company would transport its teas to the American col- 
onies. Cargoes were therefore sent to New York, Philadel- 
phia, Charleston, Boston. New York and Philadelphia sent 
back the ships ; at Charleston the tea was stored in damp cel- 
lars, where, as there was no demand for it, it soon spoiled. At 
Boston, as the return of the ships could not be obtained, 

1773. Dec. 16. They were boarded by citizens disguised as Indians, 

and 342 chests of tea were emptied in the water (Boston Tea 
Party). 
Daniel Boon settled in Kentucky. English settlement near the 
Natchez. 

1774. Mar. Passage of the Boston Port Bill, closing Boston to the 

importation and exportation of all goods except food or fuel ; 
and of " an act for the better regulating the government of Mas- 
sachusetts," which was a virtual revocation of the charter, 
givdng the governor great increase of power. Another act de- 
creed that persons accused of murder or any capital crime 
in aiding government should be tried in England, or in 
some other colony than that wherein the crime was committed. 
General Gage, commander-in-chief of the royal forces in North 
America, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. 
June 1. The port act went into operation in Boston. 

County conventions throughout Massachusetts protested 
against the acts (Aug.-Sept.). 



426 Modern History. A. D. 

Sept. The Suffolk convention resolved : " That no obedience is due 
from the province to either or any part of the said acts, but 
that they should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked ad- 
ministration to enslave America." 
The project of a congress of the colonies, moved in 1773 by 
Franklin, was taken up by Rhode Island, Virginia, Mas- 
sachusetts, and the other colonies (except Georgia). 

1774, Sept. 5. Continental Congress 

at Philadelphia. Peyton Randolph, president. Among the 
members were : Samuel and John Adams (Massachusetts), John 
Jay (New York), George Washington, Patrick Henry (Virginia). 
An address was prepared to the king, memorials to the people of 
British America, and to the people of Great Britain, to Canada, 
Florida, Georgia, etc. A declaration of rights was drawn up. The 
congress also concluded 
Oct. 20. The American Association ; an agreement to prevent 

all importation and exportation from and to Great Britain until 
the acts were repealed. On Oct. 26, the congress separated with a 
resolve to meet the next year if justice had not by that time been 
done. 

In the meantime more British troops had been concentrated at 
Boston, and the town had been fortified. The town was the recipient 
of much sympathy and many generous gifts from the other colonies. 
Oct. The house of representatives in Massachusetts having been 

dissolved by the governor Sept. 28, met, and voting them- 
Oct. 26. selves a provincial congress, proceeded to organize the 

militia (minute-men) and collect stores and ammunition. 

1775. Fruitless attempt of the opposition in parliament under lord 
Chatham to procure the repeal of harsh measures toward the 
colonies. 

Acts for restraining the trade of New England and the southern 
colonies. A " conciliatory " measure introduced by lord North 
exempting from taxation any colony which would undertake 
to raise the quota assessed upon it. The act met with no re- 
sponse. 
Feb. 26. A British expedition to Salem, to seize some cannon stored 
there, was opposed by a few militia under colonel Pickering, 
but finally withdrew without bloodshed. 

1775-1783. War of Independence. 

April 19. Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. 

A body of 800 British soldiers, detailed to destroy stores at 
Concord, fired upon a number of provincials assembled on the green 
at Lexington, killing eight men ; an ineffectual fire was returned. 
Proceeding to Concord, the British destroyed the stores, but were 
obliged to retreat {fight at the bridge) ; the retreat became a rout 
before they reached Lexington, where lord Percy with fresh troops 
met them. The further retreat to Boston was much embarrassed by 
the constantly increasing number of provincials. The British lost 
273 men ; the Americans 103. 



A.. r>. America : British Colonies. 427 

In Massachusetts a large army was raised and encamped near 

Boston. 

May 10. Capture of Ticonderoga by the provincials under Ethan 
Allen. 

May 12. Capture of Crown Point by Seth Warner. 

May 10. Meeting of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia. 

May 31. The county convention of Mecklenburg Co., North Carolina, 
declared the colonial charter suspended, and the government 
vested in the provincial and continental congresses. 
The troops before Boston were adopted as the American continental 

army ; and George Washington (born Feb. 22, 1732 ; died Dec. 

14, 1799) was appointed commander-in-chief of the provincial forces 

(June 15). 

June 17. Battle of Bunker's (more properly Breed's) Hill, opposite 
Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments. 
The provincials were finally driven from their intrenchment, 
after their ammimition gave out, but not before they had in- 
flicted a loss of 1054 men on the British, themselves losing 
about 450 men {Warren f). 

July 3. Washington took command of the American army at Cam- 
bridge. 

1775, July-March 17, 1776. Siege of Boston. 

1775, Aug. Georgia joined the other colonies. An expedition 
against Canada being resolved upon, general Montgomery took 
Montreal (Nov. 12), but was defeated and killed before Quebec 
(Dec. 31), where Benedict Arnold had joined him after an ar- 
duous march. Fruitless siege of Quebec by Arnold. 

1776, March 4. Occupation of Dorchester Heights by Washington. 
March 17. Evacuation of Boston. 

1776, April 23. North Carolina authorized its delegates to join 

in a declaration of independence. 
May 15. Congress voted " that the exercise of every kind of authority 
under the crown should be totally suppressed," and extended 
to all the colonies its advice that they should set up govern- 
ments for themselves. 
Virginia directed its delegates to introduce a resolution an- 
nouncing the independence of the colonies. 
June 7. In congress it was moved by Richard Henry Lee of Vir- 
ginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, " That 
these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- 
dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of 
Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution 
was referred and a committee appointed to draft a declaration, which 
accepted one prepared by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. Reported 
June 28. Debate July 1. The resolution was adopted by all 
the colonies except New York, whose delegates were not instructed 
on so grave a matter, July 2. 

June 18. Evacuation of Canada by the Americans. 
June 28. Repulse of the British before fort Sullivan (Moultrie) 
off Charleston, S. C. 



428 Modern History. A. d. 

1776, July 4. Adoption of the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. (Signed Aug. 2 and later.) 

To have taken up a position of independence was a moral 
gain for the colonies, but the act was followed by a period of 
military disaster. 
After the surrender of Boston, Washington went to New York, 

which was soon attacked by the two Howes with some 30,000 men. 

The British commanders brought offers of peace, but they were not 

acceptable. 

Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island ; defeat of general Putnam. Re- 
treat of the Americans to New York. 

Sept. 15. Occupation of New York by the British. Washington 
retreated to the Harlem heights. 

Sept. 22. Captain Nathan Hale, sent to reconnoitre the British 
force on Long Island, was captured and immediately executed 
by order of Sir William Howe ; the attendance of a clergy- 
man was denied him, and his last letters to his mother and 
friends were destroyed. 
Disaster also overtook the colonists in the North. 

Oct. 11-13. Defeat of Arnold in two naval engagements on Lake 
Champlain. Occupation of Crown Point by the British. 

Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains, near New York. Defeat of 
Washington. 

Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington by the British. 

Nov. 20. Evacuation of Fort Lee by the Americans. 

Nov. 28. Washington retreated across New Jersey, and passed 
into Pennsylvania. 

Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton ; Washington having crossed the Dela- 
ware by night, surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians at 
Trenton ; two days afterward he occupied the town in force, 
and defeated the British in 

1777, Jan. 3. The Battle of Princeton. The Americans overran 
New Jersey, and several skirmishes occurred with the enemy 

during the spring. The army was in a very bad condition, owing 
largely to lack of money, which congress could supply only by the 
issue of paper money which soon depreciated largely. Even the ar- 
rival of the marquis of Lafayette, who was appointed major-general 
(July 31, 1777) brought only temporary encouragement. 
Burgoyne's and St. Leger's campaign from Canada. 

The summer of 1777 saw a change of fortune. The British had 
planned to cut the colonies in two by an expedition under general 
Burgoyne from Canada, which should be met by a northward move- 
ment of the army in New York. (Capture of forts Clinton and 
Montgomery, Oct. 6.) Burgoyne took Ticonderoga July 6, and de- 
feated the Americans at Hubbardton July 7. 

As Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, Schuyler, who had but half his 
force, retired to Saratoga. Meantime St. Leger, who was to cooper- 
ate with Burgoyne from Lake Ontario, besieged Fort Schuyler and de- 
feated Herkimer (Aug. 6), but returned to Montreal on the approach 
of Arnold with reinforcements. 



A., d. America : British Colonies. 429 

Hearing of provisions and stores at Bennington in Vermont (then 
called New Hampshire Grants) Burgoyne sent colonel Baum to seize 
them, who was defeated by general Stark in the 

1777, Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington. 
Schuyler succeeded by Gates. 

Sept. 19. Burgoyne fought the battle of Stillwater (first battle 

of Semis's Heights, or battle of Freeman's Farm), retaining the 
field, although he suffered a heavier loss than the Americans. On 
Oct. 7, a second battle was fought at Stillwater (second battle of 
Bemis's Heights or Saratoga), in which the British were defeated. 
Being now surrounded and finding retreat impracticable, 
3L777, Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered his entire force (about 6,600 

men) to Gates. 
Howe's Campaign. 

In the south events were less fortunate. On Aug. 25 general 
Howe disclosed his purpose of attacking Philadelphia. Washington 
immediately offered battle, but in the 
Sept. 11. Battle of the Brandywine 

the Americans were defeated, although they retired in good 

order (general Greene). 
Sept. 27. Howe occupied Philadelphia. 

Washington attempted to surprise the camp at Germantown, 

but was defeated in the 
Oct. 4. Battle of Germantown. 

Capture of Fort Mifflin (Nov. 16) ; evacuation of Fort Mercer 

(Nov. 20) ; loss of the Delaware. 
Winter. Washington at Valley Forge. Sufferings of the army. 
Nov. 15. Articles of confederation and perpetual union agreed 

upon in congress between the states of New Hampshire, Mas- 
sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. The confederacy was to be 
called "The United States of America." These articles were 
laid before the legislature of the separate states for ratification. This 
process proved a long one. 
June 14. Congress voted "that the flag of the thirteen United 

States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; that the 

union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a 

new constellation. 
The people of New Hampshire Grants declared themselves an 

independent state under the name of Vermont (Jan.) 

1778. Treaties -with France ; recognition of the independence of 
Jan. 30-Feb. 6. the United States. These treaties were negotiated by 

John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. 

Feb. Parliament renounced the right of taxing the colonies except 
for the regulation of trade, and appointed a commission to ne- 
gotiate for the submission of the colonies. The proposals of 
the commissioners were rejected by congress (June 17) and by 
the separate states. 

June 18. Evacuation of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clinton. 
Washington intercepted Clinton's march, and in the 



430 Modern History. A. D. 

1778, June 28. Battle of Monmouth turned a retreat begun by 
general (Charles) Lee into a victory. The British decamped 
by night. 

Arrival of Count d'Estaing with eighteen vessels and 4,000 troops 
off Virginia. An attack on Newport having been resolved on, 
the French fleet sailed to that port. Instead of cooperating 
in the attack D'Estaing sailed to Boston Aug. 22, to refit (in 
accordance with his strict orders), and in spite of a victory at 
Quaker Hill on Rhode Island (Aug. 29) the Americans under 
Sullivan were obliged to give up the siege and retire from the 
island before Sir Henry Clinton who brought reinforcements. 

July 4. Massacre at Wyoming in Pennsylvania by colonel Butler, 
a Tory, and Brandt. 

Sept. 14. Benjamin Franklin minister plenipotentiary to France. 

Nov. 11. Massacre of Cherry Valley. 

Dec. 29. Savannah captured by the British under colonel Camp- 
bell. 

1779, March 3. Defeat of general Ashe at Briar Creek by the British. 
Loss of Georgia, where the provincial government was re- 
stored. 

General Lincoln, being placed in command of the southern army, 
marched upon Augusta, while the British leader, Provost, threatened 
Charleston but retired before determined resistance. D'Estaing 
reaching Savannah with the French fleet, an assault was made on the 
town (Oct. 9), but repulsed; after which D'Estaing left the dangerous 
coast (death of Pulaski). 

May. Coasts of Virginia plundered by an expedition from New York. 
July 5. Plunder of New Haven in Connecticut by Tryon ; followed 

by the sack of other towns. 
July 16. Storm of Stony Point on the Hudson by the Americans 

under Anthony Wayne ; destruction of the fortifications. 
July 19. The Americans fortified West Point. 

John Paul Jones, who had in 1778 surprised White Haven, sailed 

this year from a French port, and after a successful cruise in 

the English seas, fought a most desperate 
Sept. 23. Naval battle -with the Serapis and the Countess of 

Scarborough (Bonhomme Richard, Jones's vessel), in which 

he was victorious. 

1780, May 12. Capture of Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. Sub- 
jugation of South Carolina by Clinton and lord Comwallis. 
The brave resistance of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion 
was seconded by the approach of the American army under 
De Kalb and Gates. But in the 

Aug. 16. Battle of Camden, 

Gates, though superior in numbers, was totally defeated by 

Comwallis (DeKalb f). 
Aug. 18. Sumter's force dispersed by colonel Tarleton. Marion re* 

treated to North Carolina. 
July. Arrival of Rochambeau at Newport with 6,000 men. 

Benedict Arnold having been placed in command of West Point, 
negotiated with Sir Henry Clinton for its surrender ; his treachery 



He 



A. d. America: British Colonies. 431 

was exposed by the capture (Sept. 23) of the agent, major Andre, 
by three privates of the New York militia, John Paulding, David 
Williams, Isaac Wirt, who, refusing his bribes, detained him and 
seized his papers. Arnold escaped to the British lines. Andre was 
declared a spy by a board of 14 officers, on his confession, and by 
order of Washington 

1780, Oct. 2. Andre was hung as a spy. 

Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Defeat of 

the British under major Fergusson. 
General Greene appointed commander of the southern army. 
Adoption of a constitution by Massachusetts, with a bill of 

rights, which was held by the supreme court to have abolished 

slavery. 
Abolition of slavery in Pennsylvania. 

1781, Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens; defeat of the British cav- 
alry under Tarleton by Morgan. 

Cornwallis in pursuit of Greene, was twice prevented from over- 
taking him by the unexpected rising of the rivers {Catawba, 
Yadkin) . 

March 15. Battle of Guilford • bloody victory of the British. 

April 25. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill near Camden ; Greene defeated 
by lord Rawdon. 

June 5. Capture of Augusta by the Americans. 

June 19. Greene forced to raise the siege of fort Ninety-six in 
North Carolina. 

Sept. 8. Battle of Eutaw ; defeat of Greene followed by the re- 
treat of the British to Charleston. 
Meantime British forces under lord Cornwallis, were concentrated 

in Virginia, where they fortified themselves at Yorktown and 

Gloucester (Aug.). In Sept. Lafayette, Washington, and Rochambeau 

met at Williamsburg, while a French fleet under count de Grasse en- 
red the Chesapeake. 

Sept. 30-Oct. 19. Siege of Yorktown. 

Expedition of Arnold against Connecticut ; burning of New 
London. 

Oct. 19. Surrender of lord Cornwallis with 7,000 men 
at Yorktown in Virginia. 

1782, Feb. 27. The commons resolved, on motion of general Conway, 

that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and 
the country all those who should advise or attempt the further 
prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North 
America." 

1782, March 20. Resignation of lord North. Ministry of the mar- 

quis of Rockingham (f July 1 ; succeeded by lord Shel- 

burne, 1782-1783). 
July 11. Evacuation of Savannah. 
Nov. 30. Preliminary articles signed at Paris between Great Britain 

and the United States. 
Dec. 14. Evacuation of Charleston. 

1783, Jan. 20. Cessation of hostilities between Great Britain and 



4:32 Modern History. A. d. 

the United States. Signature of preliminaries of peace be- 
tween Great Britain, France, and Spain at Versailles ; between 
Great Britain and the United States at Paris. 

April 11. Cessation of arms proclaimed by congress. Independence 
of the United States recognized by Holland, April 19, 1782 ; 
Sweden, Feb. 5, 1783 ; Denmark, Feb. 25 ; Spain, March 24 ; 
Russia, in July. 

April 19. Peace proclaimed by the commander of the army. 

1783, Sept. 3. Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great 
Britain and the United States signed at Paris ; be- 
tween Great Britain, Prance, and Spain signed at 
Versailles, (p. 441.) *» 

1. 1. Recognition of the independence of the United States, and 
establishment of boundaries. (From the intersection of a line due 
N. from the head of the St. Croix river in Nova Scotia, with the 
highlands S. of the St. Lawrence ; along the highlands to the head of 
the Connecticut ; along that river to 45° N., thence W. to the river 
Iroquois, thence through lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Long 
Lake, and Lake of the Woods ; thence W. to the Mississippi and along 
that river to 31° N. ; from this point E. to the Apalachicola or 
Catouche, along this river to the Flint • thence direct to the head of 
St. Mary's river, and so to the Atlantic : east, from the mouth of the 
St. Croix river to its source, and due north to the highlands, includ- 
ing all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, except such as be- 
longed to Nova Scotia.) 

2. Right of fishery secured to the United States on the Grand Bank 
and all other Newfoundland banks, and in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 
as well as on the coast of Newfoundland ; right to cure fish on all 
unsettled parts of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and Magdalen islands as 
long as they should remain unsettled. 

3. All good debts heretofore contracted should be considered 
binding. 

4. Restitution of confiscated estates to be recommended by con- 
gress to the states. 

5. Navigation of the Mississippi to be open to both Great Britain 
and the United States. 

II. Great Britain ceded Tobago to France. 

III. Great Britain ceded Florida to Spain. 
Establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati by officers of the 

army. 

Nov. 2. Washington's farewell address to the army. 

Nov. 25. Evacuation of New York. 

Dec. 23. Washington resigned his commission. 

1784. Partial abolition of slavery in Connecticut. Erection of a 
temporary government for the western territory (April). Or- 
ganization of the state of Franklin or Frankland by the west- 
ern counties of North Carolina (Dec.) ; it was given up in 
1788. 

1786. Insurrection in Massachusetts and in New Hampshire, 
springing from financial complications. 

1787, Jan.-Feb. The insurgents in Massachusetts, numbering 



A. D. America. — Great Britain. 433 

about 1,100, under Daniel Shays, met the troops of the state 
under general Shepherd, but were dispersed by the mere sight 
of artillery. Three men were killed (Shays' Rebellion). 
The restricted powers of the congress approving themselves totally 
insufficient for the proper government of the country (failure to estab- 
lish a revenue by an impost tax ; infraction of treaties by the states), 
Virginia proposed a convention for forming a better Constitution 
(1786). The recommendation meeting with favor, after much delay 
1787, May 25. Delegates from seven states met in convention at Phil- 
adelphia, and elected Washington president. Delegates from 
other states came in, until all were represented except Rhode 
Island. The debates were long and warm, and more than one 
compromise (tacit recognition of slavery ; equal representation 
of all states in the senate ; in the house representation accord- 
ing to population) was necessary before the delegates 

Sept. 17. Signed the Constitution of the United States, 
which was forthwith laid before the separate states. 

1787. Ordinance for the government of the territory north- 
July 13. west of the Ohio, which was ceded, or to be ceded, to the 

United States by the states, and bought of the Indians. 
Slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment 
for crime, were forbidden within this region. 

1788, Sept. 13. All the states except Rhode Island and North 

Carolina having accepted the Constitution, congress appointed 
days for elections under the same. (See p. 547.) 

§ 8. GREAT BRITAIN. (Seep. 389.) 

1702-1714. Anne, 

second daughter of James II., wife of Prince George of Den- 
mark. In the first part of her reign the queen was under the influ- 
ence of the Whigs (John Churchill, duke of Marlborough and his wife). 
1702, May 4. War declared upon France by the grand alliance, in- 
cluding England. For the war (of the Spanish Succession) 
see p. 390. Marlborough was captain-general of all the land 
forces ; Godolphin, lord high treasurer ; Nottingham, secre= 
tary of state. Halifax and Somers not in the privy council. 
July 2. Sixth Parliament of William III. dissolved. 

The campaign of this year resulted in the capture of Venloo and 
Liege and the loss of the lower Rhine to France. Sir George Rooke 
failed to take Cadiz, but seized a number of treasure ships at Vigo 
Bay (Oct.). 

1702, Oct. 20-1705, March 14. First parliament of Anne. 1 

Harley speaker of the house of commons. Marlborough made 
a duke. 
Dee. Bill to prevent occasional conformity passed by the com- 
mons but rejected by the lords (High church and Low church). 

1703. Severe laws in Ireland against Irish Catholics. 

1 The dates are those of the actual meeting and separation of the parliaments. 
not of the oroclamations summoning and dissolving them. 
28 



434 Modern History. A. d. 

1703, Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. England 
agreed to admit the heavy wines of Portugal at one third 
lower rate than the light French wines, while Portugal prom- 
ised to import all her woolens from England. 

Sept. Archduke Charles assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. 

Nov. Establishment of Queen Anne's Bounty ; a grant of the 

first fruits and tithes which Henry VIII. had confiscated for 

the crown, in trust for increasing the income of small benefices. 

In this campaign (1703) Marlborough took Bonn and Huy, 

Limburg and Guelders. 

1704, Mar. Case of Ashby and White (right of electors to vote). 
July 24. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley 

Shovel. 
Aug. 13. Victory of Blenheim or Hochstadt (p. 392). Naval vic- 
tory off Malaga ovei the French. 
Attempt to pass the occasional conformity bill by tacking it to a 
money bill (tochers). The scheme was defeated in the com- 
mons. 

1705, Oct. 4. Capture of Barcelona by Charles Mor daunt, lord Pe- 

terborough. 

1705, Oct. 25-1708, Apr. 1. Second Parliament of Anne. Whigs 

in majority. 

1706, May 23. Ramillies ; conquest of Brabant (p. 392) ; Turin, 
Sept. 7; conquest of Italy (p. 392). The allies in Madrid. 

1707, Apr. 25. Battle of Almanza ; defeat of the allies by the duke 

of Berwick. Spain lost to the allies. 

1707, May 1. Union of England and Scotland under 
the name of Great Britain went into effect. 
This measure, which was made necessary by the omission of 
Scotland from the act of settlement, provided : 1. that Sophia, 
princess of Hanover and her Protestant heirs should succeed 
to the crown of the united kingdom. 2. There should be one 
parliament, to which Scotland should send sixteen elective peers 
and forty-five members of the commons. No more peers of 
Scotland to be created. Scotch law and legal administration to 
be unchanged ; the Episcopal church in England and Presbyte- 
rian in Scotland to be unchanged. Adoption of the Union 
Jack (Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) as the national 
flag of Great Britain. 
1707, Oct. 23. First Parliament of Great Britain. 1 The influence 
of Marlborough and his wife had been gradually weakened 
by Harley and by the influence of the queen's new favorite, Abigail 
Hill, now Mrs. Masham. Marlborough, however, was still so strong 
that a hint at resignation secured the dismissal of Harley and St. John 
from the cabinet, and the substitution of Boyle and Robert Walpole 
(secretary-at-war). Last Royal veto. 

1 Not a new parliament, but the second parliament of Anne revived by pro- 
clamation. Henceforward parliaments are numbered without regard to reigns, 
but here the distinction is retained. The number as a parliament of Great 
Britain is indicated by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. 



A. d. Great Britain. 435 

1708, March. James Edward {Chevalier de St. George, the Old 
Pretender) landed in Scotland. A French fleet sent to assist 
him was repulsed by Admiral Byng, and the Pretender soon 
returned to France. 

July 11. Battle of Oudenarde (p. 392). 

1708, Nov. 16-1710, Apr. 5. Third Parliament of Anne (II.). 

Whig majority. Somers president of the council. Leaders 
of the whigs (Junto) : Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford, 
Sunderland. 

1709, Sept. 11. Battle of Malplaquet (p. 393). 
Oct. Townshend's barrier treaty. Copyright act. 

1710, Feb.-Mar. Trial of Dr. Sacheverell for preaching sermons 

of an ultra Tory cast. He was convicted and thereby secured 
great popularity in the kingdom. 
Harley chancellor of exchequer. St. John, secretary of state. 
Sept. Charles III. in Madrid driven out by Vendome. 

1710. Nov. 25-1713, July 16. Fourth Parliament of Anne (III.). 

Tory majority. Dismissal of Godolphin ; resignation of all 
the Whig ministers. 
South Sea Company established. 

1711. Mrs. Masham superseded the duchess of Marlborough as 
keeper of the privy purse. The duke retained his office. At- 
tempted assassination of Harley by the marquis of Guiscard. 
Harley created earl of Oxford and Mortimer and lord high 
treasurer. 

Sept. 13. Marlborough captured the fortress of Bouchain. 
Oct. Charles III. left Spain ; elected emperor Charles VI. 
Nov. Philip V. entered Madrid. 

Passage of the occasional conformity bill. 
Marlborough, who had returned to England, was accused of 
peculation (Nov.) and dismissed from all his offices. Duke of 
Ormond, commander-in-chief. 
Dec. 30. Qualification act (repealed 1866). 

1712. Creation of twelve Tory peers to secure a majority in the 
lords. 

July. Henry St. John created viscount Bolingbroke. 

1713. Apr. 11. Peace of Utrecht (p. 393). 

Articles affecting Great Britain. 

Great Britain and France : Renunciation of the Pretender; 
recognition of the Protestant succession in Great Britain ; crowns of 
France and Spain not to be united under one head ; fortifications of 
Dunkirk to be leveled and its harbor filled up ; cession of Hudson's 
Bay and strait, Nova Scotia (Acadia), Newfoundland, St. Christopher 
to England; Great Britain and Spain, cession of Gibraltar and Mi- 
norca to England; grant of the Assiento {el pacto de el asiento de 
nigros), or contract for supplying slaves to Spanish America, to the 
subjects of Great Britian for thirty years (Royal African Company). 

1714. Feb. 16-1714, Aug. 25. Fifth Farliament of Anne (IV.). 
i714, May 28. Death of princess Sophia of Hanover. Schism act. 
July 27. Earl of Oxford dismissed, and succeeded as lord high 

treasurer by the earl of Shrewsbury (Talbot). 



436 



Modern History. 



A. D. 



Aug. 1. Death of Anne. 

Alexander Pope, 1688-1744 ; Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745 ; 
Daniel Defoe, 1661?-1731; Joseph Addison, 1672-1719; Sir 
Richard Steele, 1671-1729. Periodical literature ; Tatler, 1709, 
Apr. 12-1711, Jan. 2; Spectator, 1711, Mar. 1-1714, Dec. 20. 

1714 — X. House of Hanover or Brunswick. 

None of Anne's seventeen children having survived her, the 
crown, according to the act of succession, descended to the 
protestant house of Hanover, the catholic line of the Stuarts 
being excluded. 



James I. (Stuart) f 1625. 
I 



3. Elizabeth 
m. Frederic V., 
elector palatine. 



12. Sophia, 
m. Ernest 
Augustus el. 
of Hanover. 



5. 



Charles I. f 1649, 

m. Henrietta Maria, 

of Henrv IV. of France. 

" 1 



Charles II. 
f 1685. m 



Mary 
William II. 
of Orange. 



James II. 

deposed 1688, 
d. 1701. 

by Anne Hyde | by Mary of Este. 



George I. 

t 1727. 
m. Sophia Dorothea, 
d. of duke of Brunswick 

and Zell. 



William III. 

t 1702. 



Mary 
f 1694. 



I 
Anne 
f 1714. 



I 
George II. 

t 1760, 
m. Caroline 
of Anspach. 



1 

Sophia Dorothea, 

m. Frederic 
William, elector 
of Brandenburg. 

Frederic II., 
king of Prussia. 



James 

Francis 

Edward, 

the Old 

Pretender, 

t 1766. 

I 



Charles Edward 
the young Pretender, 

without issue. 
f 1788. 



Henry, 

cardinal 

York, 

without issue. 

t 1807. 



Frederic Louis, 

t 1751, 
m. Augusta, d. 
of duke of Saxe Coburg. 

and Gotha. 

George III. 

t 1820, 
m. Charlotte of 
Mecklenburg 
Strelitz. 

1714-1727. George I. 

1714, Sept. 18. The king landed in England. George I. favored 
the Whigs in the formation of the first government ; Lord 
Townshend sec. of state ; Shrewsbury resigned, and Halifax was made 
first lord of the treasury (Shrewsbury was the last lord high treasurer) ; 
Sunderland lord lieutenant of Ireland ; lord Cowper chancellor : 
earl of Nottingham president of the council ; Marlborough comman- 
der-in-chief. 



A. D. Great Britain. 437 

1715, Mar. 17-1722, Mar. 7. First Parliament of George I. (V.). 
Impeachment of Bolingbroke, Ormond, Oxford. Flight of Bol- 
ingbroke and Ormond ; Oxford committed to the Tower. Jac- 
obite riots. Riot act. 

1715-1716, Sept. Jacobite rising in Scotland under the earl of Mar. 
Battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston. Arrival of the Pretender 
in Scotland (Dec.) As his friends dispersed upon the approach 
of the duke of Argyle, the Pretender abandoned Scotland 
(Feb. 5, 1716) and returned to France. 
Barrier treaty (in 1781 Joseph II. dismantled the fortresses). 
Impeachment of the Jacobite leaders. Execution of DerwenU 
water and Kenmure (Feb. 24). 
Act creating septennial instead of triennial parliaments. 

1717, Jan. 4. Triple alliance between England, France, and Holland 

in consequence of the intrigues of the Pretender, Charles XII. of 
Sweden, and Spain (Alberoni). 
Feb. 20, 1722-Mar. 7. First Septennial Parliament. 

Convocation ceased to meet for business (revived under the 
present reign). 

1718, Aug. 2. Quadruple alliance between England, France, the 
emperor, Holland (p. 397). 

1718, Dec. 17-1720. War between England and Spain. 

1718, Jan. Repeal of the occasional conformity act and the 

schism act. 

1719, Abortive Spanish expedition to Scotland in favor of the Pre- 
tender. 

Nov. 20. Treaty of Stockholm ; Sweden ceded Bremen and Ver- 
den (p. 397) to George I. for 1,000,000 rix dollars. 

1720, Jan. Spain joined the quadruple alliance. Bursting of the 

south sea bubble, from a panic originatmg in the failure of 
Law's scheme in France. 

1721-1742. Administration of Walpole (1726-1742, administra- 
tion of Fleury in France). 

1722, Oct. 9-1727, July 17. Second parliament of George I. 

(VI.)- 
1725, Sept. 3. Treaty of Hanover between England, France and 
Prussia (alliance of Herrenhausen). 

1727, June 11. Death of George I. 

1727-1760. George II. 

Walpole continued in office. The king governed by his wife, 
Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline, of Anspach. 

1728, Jan. 23-1734, Apr. 16. First Parliament of George II. 

(VII.). 

1729, Nov. 9. Treaty of Seville with Spain; restoration of con- 

quest ; confirmation of the assiento. Gibraltar ceded to Eng- 
land. 

1731, Mar. 16. Treaty of Vienna : dissolution of the Ostend East 
India Co. which had been formed as a rival to the English East 
India Co. by the emperor. 

1735, Jan. 14-1741, Apr. 25. Second Parliament of George II. 
CVIIL). 



438 Modern History. A. D. 

1736. Porteous riots in Edinburgh. 
1739-1748. War with Spain. 

1739, Nov. 22. Capture of Porto Bello in Darien by admiral Vernon. 

1740. Futile attack upon Carthagena by Vernon and Wentworth. 
Disease in the army. 

1740, Sept-1744, June. Voyage of commodore Anson to the coast 

of Chili and Peru and around the world. 

1741, Dec. 1-1747, June 17. Third Parliament of George II. 
(IX.). Fall of Walpole (succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, 

Feb. 1742). 
1743-1754. Administration of Henry Pelham, who succeeded the 
earl of Wilmington (f ), July 1743, as first lord of the treasury. 

1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. 

England took part with Austria (pragmatic army); for her 
share in the war see p. 400. 

Nov. Ministry of Pelham, Pitt, 'Newcastle, Harrington (Stanhope), 
Bedford. (" Broad Bottom Ministry.") 

1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (p. 402); Saxe defeated Cum- 
berland. Louisburg taken from the French (p. 421). 

1745, Second Jacobite rebellion. 

The young Pretender, Charles Edward, landed in Scotland 
(July 25), and proclaimed his father (f 1766) as James VIII. 
of Scotland and III. of England. 

Sept. 11. The Pretender entered Edinburgh with some 2,000 men. 

Sept. 21. Jacobite victory at Prestonpans. 

Dec. 4. Pretender at Derby (about 6,000 men). 

Dec. 18. Jacobite victory at Penrith. 

1746, Jan. 17. Jacobite victory at Falkirk Moor, over general 
Hawley. 

April 16. Battle of Culloden ; victory of the duke of Cumberland 
over lord George Murray and the Pretender. 
Execution of Jacobite lords. Escape of the Pretender to France 
(Sept. 20). 

1747, Nov. 10-1754, Apr. 6. Fourth Parliament of George II. 

(X.). 

1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 403). 

1752. Adoption of the reformed (Gregorian) calendar in Eng- 
land and the colonies. 
The year was to begin Jan. 1 instead of March 25 ; eleven days 
were omitted between Sept. 2 and 14. 

1754. The duke of Newcastle succeeded his brother, Mr. Pelham (f 
March), as prime minister. Fox secretary of state. 

1754, May 31-1761, Mar. 19. Fifth Parliament of George II. 
(XI.). 

1755-1763. Land and naval war between England and 
France (Seven Years' War), originating in boundary disputes 
in North America, carried on by land in America (and Ger- 
many), by sea in all parts of the world. The English had the 
advantage of the French almost everywhere. (War in Amer* 

x ica, p. 420 ; in Europe, p. 403 ; in India, p. 443.) 



A. D. Great Britain. 439 

1753. Foundation of the British Museum. 

1756. Black Hole at Calcutta, (p. 443.) 

1757-1761, Oct. 5. Coalition ministry of the duke of Newcastle, 
first lord of the treasury, and the elder Pitt (William Pitt, b. 
1708; member of the commons 1735; vice-treasurer for Ireland 
1746; privy councillor and paymaster-general, secretary of state 
1756; retired 1761; in opposition 1761-1766 ; privy seal 1766- 
1768; earl of Chatham July 29, 1766 ; died May 11, 1778), 
secretary of state. 

1759, Sept. 13. Battle of Quebec, death of Wolfe. 

1759, Nov. 20. Naval battle of Quiberon Bay ; defeat of the 

French by Sir Edward Hawke. 

1760, Oct. 25. Death of George II. 

1760-1820. George III,, first part of his reign, to 1783. 

1761, Aug. 15. Bourbon family compact, 

between France and Spain with the assumption of the accession 
of Naples and Parma, for reciprocal guarantee of all posses- 
sions and an offensive and defensive alliance. Pitt, insisting 
that war ought to be declared upon Spain, resigned (Oct. 5). 
Lord Bute, the true adviser of the king; " the king's friends; " 
the " power behind the throne." 
1761, Oct. 5-1762, May 29. Ministry of the duke of Newcas- 
tle. Egremont and Bute, secretaries of state ; George Grenville 
leader in the commons. 

1761, Nov. 3-1768, Mar. 10. First Parliament of George HI. 

(XIL). 

1762, Jan. War declared against Spain. 

1762, May 29-1763, Apr. 1. Ministry of lord Bute ; Grenville, 
secretary of state. 

1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris 

between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 
1. France ceded to England: in North America, Canada, and Cape 

Breton Island • the Mississippi was recognized as the boundary 
between Louisiana and the British colonies ; in the West Indies Granada; 
in Africa the French possessions on the Senegal. England restored to 
France Goree in Africa, and all conquests in India. 2. Spain ceded 
to England Florida, as indemnification for which France had already 
ceded Louisiana to Spain ; Spain received from England all con- 
quests in Cuba including Havana. 

In consequence of this peace and her acquisitions in India (p. 443) 
Great Britain reached the summit of her extent and power; the North 
American colonies had gradually developed into states under gover- 
nors, with liberal constitutions, modeled after that of Great Britain. 
1763, April 1-1765, July. Ministry of George Grenville; Halifax 

and Egremont, secretaries of states; Fox created lord Holland. 
No. 45 of the North Briton containing insulting remarks concerning 
the king by John "Wilkes, general warrants for the apprehension of 
the authors, printers, and publishers, were issued. Wilkes was ar- 
rested and expelled from the commons. General warrants declared 
illegal by the chief justice. Wilkes outlawed. 



440 Modern History. A. l- 

1765, Feb. Stamp act (p. 425). 

1765, July-1766, July. Ministry of the marquis of Rockingham ; 

general Conway secretary of state and leader of the commons. 

1766, March. Repeal of stamp act (p. 423). 

1766, April 22. General warrants declared illegal by resolution 

of the commons (a declaratory bill to this effect was thrown out 
by the lords). 
Aug. 1767, Dec. Ministry of Chatham; Grafton. 

1767, Dec-1770, Jan. Ministry of the duke of Grafton ; Towns* 

hend chancellor of the exchequer ; general Conway, lord Shel- 
burne, secretaries of state. Pitt (earl of Chatham) lord privy 
seal. Lord Hillsborough first colonial secretary. 

1768, May 10-1774, June 22. Second Parliament of George 

III. (XIII.). Wilkes member for Middlesex. 

1769, Feb. Wilkes expelled the house for an alleged libel on lord 

Weymouth. He was thrice elected and thrice rejected ; at the 
last election his opponent, colonel Luttrell, who received a 
small minority, was declared elected. 
1769-1772. Letters of Junius, containing bitter attacks upon the 
duke of Grafton, lord Mansfield (Murray}, and other mem- 
bers of the government, appeared in the " Daily Advertiser." 
The author is still unknown, though the letters are attributed 
by many with great confidence to Sir Philip Francis. 

1770, Jan.-1782, March 20. Ministry of lord North (first lord of 

the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer). 

1770, May. Remonstrance of the lord mayor and aldermen of 

London with the king. 

1771. Abortive attempt of the commons to prevent the publication 
of speeches. Complaint of colonel Onslow; arrest of the 
printers ; commitment of Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, alder- 
man of London, for granting bail. 

1774. Boston Port Bill (p. 425). 

1774, Nov. 29-1780, July 8. Third Parliament of George III. 
(XIV.). 
Wilkes, lord mayor, and member for Middlesex ; motion to 
expunge the resolution rejecting him. (On the sixth motion, 
May 3, 1782, he was successful, and the resolutions were ex- 
punged " as subversive of the rights of electors.") 

1775-1783- "War of independence of the British col- 
onies in North America, see p. 426. 
1778-1783. War between Great Britain and Prance. 

1778. Repeal of penal laws against papists in England. 

1779-1783. War between Great Britain and Spain. 

1779-1782. Gibraltar besieged by the French and Spanish in vain ; 

bravely defended by Elliott. 
1780. No popery riots, caused by the intended relief of papists in 

Scotland. Protestant associations; lord George Gordon, 

president. 
June 2. Presentation of a no popery petition ; riot in London 

lasting five days,, Executions. 



&, D. Great Britain. 441 

The armed neutrality (p. 412) formed to resist England's 
assumption of the right of search. 
1780, Oct. 31-1784, Mar. 24. Fourth Parliament of George 
III. (XV.). 

1780, Dec. 30-1783. War between Great Britain and Holland. 

1781, Oct. 19. Surrender of Cornwallis (p. 431). In this year 
-the English lost Pensacola, Tobago, St. Eustachius, Demerara, 
Essequibo, St. Christopher, Nevis, Monserrat, Minorca (1782). 

1782, Feb. Motion of general Conway " that the house will consider 

as enemies to the king and country all who shall advise, or by 
any means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, 
for the purpose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience 
by force." 

March 15. Motion of Sir J. Rous " that the house could no longer 
repose confidence in the present ministers," lost by nine votes. 
On a threat of renewal of the motion lord North resigned. 

1782, March 20-July 1. Ministry of the marquis of Rocking- 
ham (f July 1, 1782) ; lord Shelburne, and Charles James Fox 
(b , 1749, son of Henry Fox, lord Holland- entered the commons 
1768 ; lord of the admiralty 1770, of the treasury 1773; 1774 
in opposition ; 1782 in the cabinet ; 1784 in opposition to Pitt; 
died Sept. 13, 1806), secretaries of state ; lord Thurlow, lord 
chancellor; Edmund Burke (b, 1729 ? in Dublin, entered par- 
liament 1765, paymaster of the forces 1782, in opposition 
with Fox 1784, until the French revolution; died July 9, 1797), 
paymaster of the forces ; Richard Brinsley Sheridan (b. 
1751 at Dublin, entered parliament 1780, died July 7, 1816), 
under-secretary of state. 

April 12. Battle of Martinique, naval victory of Rodney and 
Hood over De Grasse. 
Reduction of the pension list ; establishment of the legislative 
independence of Ireland ; exclusion of contractors and rev- 
enue officers from parliament. 

1782, July 1-1783, Feb. 24. Ministry of lord Shelburne following 

the death of Rockingham. William Pitt (b. 1759, entered 
parliament 1781 ; chancellor of exchequer 1782 ; prime min- 
ister 1783 ; retired 1801 : returned to office 1804 ; died Jan. 
23, 1806), twenty-three years old, chancellor of the exchequer ; 
Fox, Burke, Sheridan, resigned. 
Nov. 30. Secret treaty of Paris with America (p. 431). 

1783, Jan. 20-Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris 
(p. 432). 

1. Recognition of the independence of the thirteen United States 
(the Americans retained the Western territory • the navigation of the 
Mississippi was in common). 2. England surrendered to France in 
the West Indies Tobago ; in Africa the region of Senegal. 3. Spain 
retained Minorca in Europe, and Florida in America. 
1783, April 2-Dec. 13. Coalition ministry of the duke of Port- 
land ; Cavendish, chancellor of exchequer ; lord North and 
Fox, secretaries of state ; Burke, paymaster. 



442 Modern History. A. d. 

1757-1784. "War of the English in India, see p. 443. 

In the epoch of the Seven Years' War, the English East India 
Company (at once sovereigns and merchants) began the foundation 
of an extensive empire in place of the existing factories. The vic- 
tories of lord Clive gave the English the upper hand of the French, 
and secured for them Bengal. 

War with the Mahrattds, who were allied with the sultan of My- 
sore, Hyder All (f 1782, his son, Tippu Saib), with the Nizam of 
Golkonda and the French. From the war this company came out vic- 
torious and with greatly increased strength. Under the ministry of 
the younger Pitt (1783-1801) the company was subordinated by 
the East India Bill (1784) in political and military affairs to a royal 
commission (board of control). 

1768-1779. Voyages of James Cook (b. 1728; under Wolfe at 
Quebec, 1759; d. 1779). 

1. Aug. 26, 1768, to June 11, 1771 : discovery of Cook's strait and 
of the strait between Australia and New Guinea. 2. July 13, 1772, 
to July 30, 1775: touching at New Zealand, Cook discovered many 
islands in the Pacific, penetrated to 71° S. latitude and rounded Cape 
Horn. 3. July 12, 1776, investigation of Behrinfs strait ; on the re- 
turn Cook was killed by the natives on Hawaii, one of the Sandwich 
islands, Feb. 14, 1779. (See p. 535.) 

§ 9. THE EAST. 

India. (Seep. 390.) 

Decline of the Mughal empire of Delhi. 

Bahadur Shah (1707-1712), Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), son 
and grandson of Aurangzeb, both under the control of the general 
Zul-fikar Khan. Successful revolt of Farrukhsiyyar (1713-1719) ; 
oppression, revolt, and punishment of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 
1715. Rajputana practically independent of the empire. 

The Sayyid chiefs, Husdin Ali and Abdulld, placed two boy em- 
perors on the throne, who were followed, after four months, 

by 
1719-1748. Muhammad Shah. 
1720-1748. Independence of the Deccan established under the 

Nizam ul Mulk, or governor. 
1732-1743. Practical independence of Oudh. 

1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia ; sack of Delhi. 
1748. Death of Muhammad Shah; from this time the emperors were 

but puppets, with a shadow only of power. 
1748-1754. Ahmad Shah. 
1748-1761. Five invasions of India by Ahmad Shah Durani, 

Afghan ruler of Kandahar: 1748 ; 1751-1752 ; 1761 (sack of 

Delhi) ; 1759 ; 1761. 
1754-1759. Alamgir II. ; capture of Delhi by the Mahrattds 

(1759). 
1759-1806. Shah Alam II. 
1761. Battle of Panipat ; defeat of the Mahrattds by the Afghans 



A. d. The East: India. 443 

under Ahmad Shah Durani. The Mahratta power was following 
fast in the footsteps of the Mughal emperors. Under Sahu, grand- 
son of Sivaji (p. 389), the real power fell into the hands of his chief 
minister, a Brahman with the title of Peshwa ; this man and his 
successors (Bdlaji, 1718-1720 ; Bdji Rao, 1721-1740; Bdlaji Bdji 
Rdo, 1740-1761 ; Madhu Rdo, 1761-1772) built up a confederacy at 
Poona while the true sovereigns sank into the petty princes of Sd- 
tdra and Kolhapur (the latter still exists). Under the first three 
Peshwas their armies prospered, they conquered the Deccan and ex- 
torted tribute from Bengal (1751). After the defeat of Panipat 
(1761), the power of the Peshwa of Poona rapidly declined, and 
the confederacy split up into five divisions : the Peshwas (Poona), 
Bhonslds (Nagpur), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gdekwdrs 
(Baroda). 

The British in India. 

When the eighteenth century opened, the British were established 
at Bombay, Madras, and in Bengal (Calcutta). The French had a 
factory at Pondicherri, south of Madras. This eastern coast land, 
the Karnatic, was under the Nawdb (Nabob) of Arcot, a subordinate 
of the Nizam of Haidardbdd (Deccan). 

1744-1748. War between France and England in Europe ; fol- 
lowed by war between these powers in India. Dupleix, gov- 
ernor of Pondicherri. 
1746. Capture of Madras by the French ; it was restored in the 

peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
1751-1754. War between French and British in India. De- 
fense of Arcot by Clive (Robert Clive, b. 1725, clerk in 
Madras 1743, ensign 1744, paymaster 1748 ; in England 1753- 
1755 ; governor of Bengal 1758 ; Irish peer, baron Clive of 
Plassey, 1760 ; governor of Bengal 1765-1767 ; committed 
suicide Nov. 22, 1774). 
1756-1763. Seven Years' War in Europe (p. 403) and Amer- 
ica (p. 420). War between the British and French in India. 

1756, June 29. " Black Hole of Calcutta." The young Nawdb 

(Nabob) of Bengal, Sirdj-ud-Dauld (Surajah Doidah), hav- 
ing quarreled with the English, seized Calcutta and imprisoned 
146 persons in the military prison of Fort William, a room 
some eighteen feet square. In the morning but 23 of the 146 
were alive. Clive recaptured Calcutta, took the French fac- 
tory at Chandarnagar and defeated a much more numerous 
force under Surajah Dowlah in the 

1757, June 23. Battle of Plassey. 

Mir Jafar was placed on the (viceregal) throne of Bengal ; Sura- 
jah Dowlah was soon put to death. 

1758, Clive governor of Bengal ; defeat of the Dutch (Nov. 1759). 
Establishment of British influence as superior to that of the 
French in the south. 



444 Modern History, a. d. 

1760, Jan. 22. Battle of Wandewash; defeat of the French under 
Lally by colonel (afterwards sir Eyre) Coote. Destruction of 
the French power in India. 
The British having deposed Mir Jafar and set up Mir Kosim as 

Nawab in 1761 were soon involved in a war with the latter (massacre 

of Patnd, 1763). Sepoy mutiny, 1764. 

1764. Battle of Baxar won by major Munro over Shah Alam, the 
emperor. Conquest of Oudh. 

1765. Settlement of Indian relations by Clive, again governor of 
Bengal (1765-1767). Oudh restored to the Nawab ; Alla- 
habad and Kora given to the emperor, Shah Alam, the British re- 
ceived the financial administration of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and the 
sovereignty over the Northern Circars. 

1771. Shah Alam submitted to the Mahrattds. 

Famine in Bengal ; bad condition of the company's affairs ; its 
servants grew rich on extortions and perquisites, but the com- 
pany was near bankruptcy. Failure of Olive's system of man- 
agement. 
1772-1774. Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal (b. 1732; clerk 
in Bengal 1749 ; member of government 1761 ; in England; 
member of council in Madras 1765; governor of Bengal 1772, 
of India 1774; recalled 1785, impeached 1788, acquitted 1795, 
privy counselor 1814, died 1818). 
1774-1785. Warren Hastings, governor-general of India. Coun- 
cil of five instead of twelve, Hastings having the casting vote. 
Introduction of reforms in administration ; acquirement by 
the British of complete control of the finances of the empire. 
Opposition of Philip Francis (Junius ?). 
Holding that the emperor had broken the agreement with Clive by 
joining the Mahrattas, Hastings sold Allahabad and Kora to the gov- 
ernor of Oudh. The resistance of Chait Sinh, the Raja of Benares, 
to the demands of Hastings was fanned into a rebellion ; Hastings 
charged the mother of the governor of Oudh (Begam of Oudh) with 
abetting the rebel, and extorted over £1,000,000 from her. For 
these acts Hastings was impeached in parliament on his return to 
England (1788-1795 ; speech of Burke), but acquitted. 

War with the Mahrattds (1778-1781), and with Haidar Ali of 
Mysore and his son Tipu (Tippu Saib). {See p. 5fyl.) 

China. (See p . 390.) 

1721-1735. Yung-ching. 
1735-1795. Kien-lung. 

Annexation of Hi. Conquest of East Turkestan. Unsuccess- 
ful invasion of Cochin China and Burmah. Suppression of a Moham- 
medan revolt in Kan-sah. Severe persecution of the Christians. Liter- 
ary labors of the emperor, who was himself a poet ; foundation of four 
libraries. 

1792. Conquest of the Gorkhas and the Nepaulese. Unsuccessful at- 
tempt to suppress a rebellion in Formosa. 



A. d. Japan. — France. 445 

1793. Embassy of earl Macartney. 

1795. Abdication of the emperor, who died in 1798. {See p. 560.) 

Japan. (See p. 357.) 

From 1654 to 1853 the history of this country is marked by few 
events of interest. Under the Tokugawa Shoguns, many of whom 
were famous for their active interest in science and literature, the 
people progressed in civilization and the diffusion of education. To- 
ward the close of the second century the country began to feel the 
evil effects of the long peace : wealth, luxury, enervation. lyetsuna 
1650-1681 ; construction of a cooperative history of Japan, the Dai 
Nihon Shi, under the care of the prince of Mito ; department of 
astronomy; growth of Yedo. Tsunayoski, 1681-1708, the friend of 
learning. Kaempfer in Japan. Yoshimune, 1717-1744, one of the 
ablest of the Tokugawas ; revision of the criminal code ; introduction 
of sugar-cane ; foundation of a free hospital at Yedo ; hygienic in- 
formation distributed throughout the country (population of Japan in 
1744, 26,080,000).! From 1763-1770 an empress sat on the Mikado's 
throne. 

1780-1816. The Mikado Kokaku ; the Shoguns ; Iyeharu 1763- 
1786 ; Iyenori 1787-1837. Reformation of the administra- 
tion. During this reign the influence of the Dutch increased 
rapidly, while several attempts of the Russians to open inter- 
course with Japan were brusquely repulsed. {See p. 562?) 

§ 10. FRANCE. (Seep. 371.) 

1715-1774. Louis XV., five years old, 

the great-grandson of Louis XIV., whose son (the dauphin 
Louis), and grandson (the duke of Burgundy) died before him. 
1715-1723. Philip, duke of Orleans, regent during the minority 

of Louis XV. He set the country (and the king) an example 
of the most shameless debauchery. His favorite was cardinal Du- 
bois (f 1723), a man of low birth and character, but of considerable 
ability. Abandonment of the policy of Louis XIV. ; alliance with 
England (1717, p. 349) ; religious tolerance. The quadruple alli- 
ance, p. 397. War with Spain ; marshal Berwick in Spain ; peace, 
Feb. 17, 1720 (treaty of London ; the emperor received Sicily, Savoy 
obtained Sardinia). 
1718-1720. Law's Mississippi scheme. 

In his financial distress the regent grasped at the dazzling 
plans of the Scotchman, John Law. Royal bank ; company of the 
west ; grant of Louisiana. Popular infatuation. Enormous infla- 
tion of the currency ; issue of notes to the amount of 3,000,000,000 
francs, based on the land of the kingdom. Sudden collapse of the 
bank and the company, bringing widespread disaster (1720). See 
the South Sea Bubble (p. 437). 
1723-1726. Administration of the duke of Bourbon. The young 

king married the daughter of the deposed king of Poland, 

1 Reed, i. p. 236. 



446 Modern History. A. d. 

Stanislaus Lesczinski, having broken off the projected marriage with 
the Infanta of Spain and sent back the princess to the great indigna- 
tion of Philip V. Louis was under the influence of his tutor, cardinal 
Fleury, who overthrew the duke of Bourbon and his favorite the mar- 
quise de Prie, and banished them from court. 
1726-1743. Administration of Fleury. 

Participation of France in the war of the Polish succes- 
sion, p. 398; in the war of the Austrian succession, p. 400; in 
the Seven Years' War, p. 403; war with England and the peace 
of Paris, pp. 422, 441. 

Persecution of the Jansenists. Miracles at the cemetery of St. 
Medard. Convulsionnaires. Closure of the cemetery, 1732. 

" De par le Roi, defense a Dieu, 
De faire miracles en ce lieu." 

After the death of Fleury (1743), government of mistresses and of 
ministers whom they placed in office. Senseless expenditure and re- 
volting arbitrary rule. Marquise de Chateauroux, 
1745-1764. Marquise de Pompadour (Lenormant d'Etioles). 
1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy ; victory of Marshal Saxe 
over the allies (p. 402 and 438). 
Struggle between the church, parliament, and crown. 
The due de Choiseul, a friend of Pompadour, minister. 

1756. Hostilities with England in North America led to war (p. 
438). 

1757, Jan. 5. Attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens, 

who was barbarously tortured and torn by four horses. 

1768. Death of the queen. 

1769. Annexation of Corsica. 

The immorality and extravagance of the court reached its height 
when Louis XV., toward the close of his reign, came under the influ- 
ence of the shameless prostitute Jeanne Vaubernier, by marriage with 
a superannuated courtier, 
1769-1774. Countess DuBarry. 

Contest with the parliament of Paris, which was abolished 
in 1771 by the chancellor, Maupeou, and superseded by a Conseil du 
Roi, without political privileges. The parliament was, however, re- 
stored under the next reign. Pacte de famine ; a company in which 
the king was shareholder, which had a monopoly of the corn supply. 
1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV. He was succeeded by his grand- 
son, 

1774-1792- Louis XVI., 

whose moral purity and sincere good-will, neutralized by a 
total lack of energy, were unable to quiet the approaching storm of 
the revolution by feeble attempts at reform. Restoration of the 
parliament. Louis, while dauphin (1770) had married Marie An- 
toinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. The queen, at first 
extremely popular, soon incurred the dislike of the people, and became 
an object of the grossest slanders, particularly in connection with 
the scandalous affair of the diamond necklace (1785 ; given to the 



A. D. France. 447 

queen by cardinal Rohan; countess Lamothe). Her Influence was an 
evil one, being exerted for the maintenance of the system of favorit- 
ism, and for the resistance of reforms. 
1774r-1781. Maurepas, the king's favorite minister. 
1774—1776, May. Turgot minister of marine and finance. 
1777-1781. Necker, minister of finance ; abolition of six hundred 

superfluous offices. 
1778. Alliance between France and the United States of America 

(p. 429). 
For the participation of France in the war of American independ- 
ence, see p. 429, etc. 
1781. Publication of the compte rendu by Necker. On the death of 

Maurepas the Comte de Vergennes succeeded to the favor of the 

king. 
1783-1787. Calonne, a favorite of the queen, minister of finance. 

Great extravagance of the court ; contraetion of an enormous 

debt. 

1787, Feb. 22. Assembly of notables summoned at Versailles. 

Fall of Calonne. 
De Brienne, minister of finance. Dissolution of the assembly 
(May 25). Opposition of the parliament of Paris, which re- 
fused to register the reform. 
Edicts, alleging that such changes needed the approval of the 
states-general. Banishment of the parliament to Troyes. An agree- 
ment was patched up, but on the recall of the parliament, a still more 
aggravated quarrel broke out concerning new loans. 

1788, Jan. Presentation of grievances. Arrest of the leaders of the 

parliament. Abolition of that body, the place of which was 
to be taken by a cour pleniere, nominated by the king. Revolts 
in the provinces. 
Summons of a states-general for May 5, 1789. 
1788, Aug. De Brienne resigned office. Necker recalled. 

THIRD PERIOD. 

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION 
TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1789-1815). 

The revolution ran through three stages to the extreme of a demo- 
cratic republic, three other periods brought it gradually through a reac- 
tion back to absolute monarchy, after which came a time of constitutional 
monarchy, then a republic, then the second empire, then a republic 
again. 

1. States General and Constituent Assembly (Constituante) ; 
from May 5 (June 17), 1789, to Sept. 30, 1791 (2£ years). A limited 
(constitutional) monarchy. Influence of the higher middle classes. 

2. The Legislative Assembly (Legislatif) ; from Oct. 1. 1791, to 
Sept. 21, 1792 (almost a year). Monarchy still further limited, then 
suspended. Increase of the power of the lower classes. 

3. The National Convention {Convention Nationale); from Sept. 
21, 1792, to Oct. 25, 1795 (more than three years); called to frame a 



448 Modern History. A. D. 

new constitution, it first abolished the monarchy and condemned the 
king to death ; it supported the Reign of Terror, and then overthrew 
it. It led the resistance to foreign foes. 

N. B. The left of the constituent was the right of the legisla- 
tive, and the left of the legislative was (at first) the right of the 
convention. 

4. The Directory (Directoire) : from Oct. 26, 1795, to Nov. 9, 1799 
(18 Brumaire, An. VIII.) more than four years. The middle classes 
recovered their influence. Party divisions. The army. General 
Bonaparte's coup d'etat. 

5. The Consulate (consulat), at first provisional then definitive, 
from Dec. 25, 1799, to May 20, 1804 (4 J years) ; civil and military 
rule, virtually of one man ; progress of French arms. 

6. The (first) Empire; from May 20, 1804 to (April, 1814) June 
22, 1815 (about eleven years). Napoleon I. made France the con- 
trolling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown. 1 

General Causes of the Revolution. 

1. The spirit of the eighteenth century — a spirit devoted to the 
destruction or reformation of all existing institutions. Attacks of 
French writers upon church and state. Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; 
Voltaire (1694-1778) ; Rousseau (1670-1741) ; the Encyclopedia 
(1751-1780), the work of the Encyclopedists : Holbach (1723- 
1789) ; Helvetius (1715-1771) ; Diderot (1713-1784) ; D'Alem- 
bert (1717-1783) ; Condillac (1715-1789). 

2. The unequal division and miserable cultivation of the land (nearly 
two thirds of which was in the hands of the clergy and the nobles), 
and the strict control exercised by the guilds, which checked the de- 
velopment of trade and industry. 

3. The arbitrary government, the abuses in the administration, the un- 
equal apportionment of the burdens of taxation. Since 1614, the consti- 
tutional assembly of the kingdom, the etats-generaux had not been 
summoned (p. 325). Control of the liberty of the subject by arbitrary 
warrants of imprisonment (lettres de cachet, Bastille) of their property 
by arbitrary taxation. 

In opposition to the right assumed by the parliament of Paris, to 
refuse the registration of edicts of taxation, the court had recourse 
to beds of justice (lits de justice, a despotic enforcement of registra- 
tion), and the banishment of members of parliament. Commissions 
in the army, places in parliament, and most of the higher offices, 
were purchasable, but as a rule, only by the nobles. The privileged 
classes (nobility and clergy) were allowed many privileges in regard 
to the direct taxes, although by no means exempt by them. 2 Continu- 
ation in the country of the oppressive feudal burdens (corvees, enforced 
labor on the estate of the lord and on public roads without pay), ex- 
actions of the feudal lords, who wasted their revenues in the capital 
and gave the peasants neither protection nor assistance in return. 
Taille, land and property tax; gabelle, tax on salt. 

1 Assmann. 

2 Von ttybel, Geschichte der Rtvoiutionszeit. 



A. D. First French Revolution. 449 



Special Cause. 

The immense public debt and the deficit. The yearly deficit owed 
its origin to the wars of Louis XIV., to his costly, often senseless 
buildings ( Versailles with its basins and fountains lying in a district 
totally without water), and to his extravagant court ; it grew under 
the profligate expenditure of Louis XV. and the cost of the North 
American war under Louis XVI. till it amounted to nearly half of 
the yearly income. As Turgors (1774-1776) attempts at reforms 
(removal of internal duties on commerce ; abolition of the corvee, abo- 
lition of many guilds), Necker' s (1776-1781) economical administra- 
tion, and the assembly of notables summoned upon the advice of 
Calonne (1787), brought no relief, the king took the advice of 
Necker, who had reassumed office (1788), and resolved upon the 

1789, May 5. Summons of the l£tats-G-eneraux to Ver- 
sailles, with a double representation of the middle classes, 
the third estate (tiers etat), nobles 300, clergy 300, commons 600. Dis- 
pute about the manner of debating and of voting (whether votes should 
be cast by the orders as such, or by each member individually) 
which broke out during the verification of the powers of the members. 
The nobles and the clergy demanded a separate verification, the com- 
mons wished that it should take place in common. The true question 
was whether the legislative body should consist of a lower house of 
commons, and an upper house of nobles and clergy which would check 
the lower, or of one house in winch the commons equaled in number 
the nobles and clergy together. Upon the motion of the abbe Sieyes 
(author of the remarkable pamphlet asking, What is the third estate ?) 
the representatives of the third estate assumed the title of the 

1789, June 17-1791. National Assembly (constituante) 

and invited the other orders to join them. 

1789. Suspension of the meetings for three days; the hall 
June 20. closed to the members, who at last resorted to a neighbor- 
ing tennis court (jeu de paume) and took an oath not to 
separate until they had given the realm a constitution. Pres- 
ident Bailly. Many of the clergy and some nobles joined the 
assembly. 
June 23. Fruitless royal sitting ; the king ordered the assembly to 
meet in three houses. 
Principal orator of the assembly : Mirabeau (Riquetti, count 
of Mirabeau, born 1749, of remarkable talent, but dissolute, 
in debt, at variance with his family, elected hi Provence as 
representative of the third estate). The representatives of 
the clergy and the nobility join the third estate by re- 
quest of the king. Concentration of troops near Paris. 
Rumors of a purpose to dissolve the national assembly, and the dis- 
missal of Necker (July 11) caused the 

1789. Storm and destruction of the Bastille in Paris 
July 14. (murder of De Launay), Camille Desmoulins. Paris in the 
29 



450 Modem history. A. d„ 

hands of the mob scarcely controlled by the electors who had 
chosen the deputies from Paris for the assembly and now sat 
at the Hotel de Ville as a provisional government. Necker 
recalled. Lafayette commander of the newly established 
National Guard. Bailly mayor of Paris. Adoption of the 
tricolor : blue, red (colors of Paris), white (color of France). 
Beginning of the emigration of the nobles, headed by the count of 
Artois, second brother of the king, prince Conde, Polignac. 

Rising of the peasants against the feudal lords in Dauphine, Pro- 
vence, and Burgundy. Riots, provisional governments, guards in the 
provincial cities. 

Aug. 4. Voluntary surrender by the representatives of the nobles 
(vicomte de Noailles) of all feudal rights and privileges ; abo- 
lition of the titles, prohibition of the sale of offices, dissolution 
of the guilds, etc. 
Aug. 27. Declaration of the rights of man. Discussion of the veto 

power. 
Oct. 5, 6. Outbreak of the mob of Paris, caused by hunger, the bribes 
of the duke of Orleans, and rumors of an intended reaction. 
March of a band, consisting principally of women, to Versailles. The 
royal family, rescued by Lafayette, were obliged to go to Paris, 
whither the national assembly followed them. 200 members re- 
signed. 

Democratic monarchical constitution : one chamber with legisla- 
tive power and the sole right of initiation. The royal veto was sus- 
pensive only, delaying the adoption of a measure for two legislative 
terms. The king could not declare war and conclude peace without 
the consent of the chamber, ratification by which was necessary for 
the validity of all foreign treaties. 

In order to relieve the financial distress the ecclesiastical estates 
were declared public property. Assignats, notes of the govern- 
ment, having for security the public lands, the value of which was 
not to be exceeded by the issue of notes (a check which was inopera- 
tive); The state assumed the support of the clergy. 

1790, July 14. National federation in Paris ; the Constitu- 
tion accepted by the king. 
Abolition of the old provinces and governments; France divided 
into eighty-three departments, named after rivers and mountains.; 
these departments being subdivided into 374 districts and cantons. 
The communes were left unchanged (44,000) ; tax qualification for the 
exercise of active suffrage in the primary assemblies, which chose 
electors (dlecteurs) who then elected the representatives (745) for a legis- 
lature with a term of two years. The administrative officers of the 
departments and districts were selected from the electors; the muni- 
cipal officers and the judges were taken from the great body of voters, 
the active citizens. Each department and each district had a local 
assembly. Abolition of the parliaments and the old judicial constitu- 
tion. Juries. Abolition of hereditary nobility, titles, and coats-of-arms. 
Dissolution of all ecclesiastical orders, excepting those having educa- 
tion and the care of the sick for their objects. Civil organization of 



A. d. First French Revolution. 451 

the clergy; the pastors to be chosen by the voters of the districts, the 
bishops by the voters of the departments. Only one third of the 
ecclesiastics submitted to the new constitution by taking the required 
oath, so that henceforward there was a distinction between priests 
who had taken the oath (pretres assermentes) and priests who had not 
(refractaires) . 

Clubs had existed since 1789 ; the Jacobins, named after their 
place of assembly, which was formerly occupied by Dominican monks 
from the Rue St. Jacques (Robespierre), soon the greatest power in 
the state ; the Cordeliers, who held their meetings in a monastery 
of Franciscans (Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, He'bert); the 
Feuillants, moderate monarchists who had separated from the Jaco- 
bins (Lafayette, Bailly). Reorganization of the municipality (com- 
mune) of Paris, in forty-eight sections ; 84,000 voters (pop. 800,000) ; 
general council, executive board (44). Each section had its primary 
assembly. 

1790, Sept. Fall of Necker. 

Alliance between the court and Mirabeau, who endeavored to stem 
the revolution and prevent the destruction of the throne. 

1791, April 2. Death of Mirabeau. 

June 20. Flight of the king. Stopped at Varennes, brought back to 
Paris (June 25). Unprovoked assault on a meeting in the 
Champs de Mars (July 17, " massacre of the Champs de Mars.") 
Suspended, reinstated by the moderate party (Sept.), Louis 
XVI. accepted the constitution as revised and com- 
pleted. Dissolution of the assembly (Sept. 30) after it had 
voted that none of its members should be eligible for reelec- 
tion to the next legislature. 

1791, Oct. 1-1792, Sept. Legislative Assembly. 

745 representatives, mostly from the middle class. Parties : 
the right, composed of constitutionalists, royalists, Feuillants, became 
weaker with every day. The left side, comprising the majority, was 
divided into : 1. Moderate republicans (the plain, la plaine), contain- 
ing the group of the Girondists (so called after its leading members 
from Bordeaux, the department of the Gironde), Guadet, Vergniaud, 
Brissot, etc., advocates of a federal republic. 2. The Mountain (la 
montagne, les montagnards), so called from their seats, which were the 
highest on the left side of the hall, radicals, adherents of a united, 
indivisible republic (une et indivisible). They were composed of the 
leaders of the clubs of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. Petion, mayor 
of Paris. 
1791, Aug. Meeting at Pillnitz between 

1786-1797. Frederic William II., king of Prussia 
(Wollner, Bischofswerder), and 

1790-1792. Leopold II., the emperor. 

Preliminary understanding in regard to Eastern matters, the 
political relations, and the French disturbances. 



452 Modern History. a. d. 

1791, Sept. Annexation of Avignon (massacres) and the Venaissin to 

France. 

1792, Feb. Alliance between Austria and Prussia. Leopold was suc- 

ceeded by 

1792-1806. Francis II. (As emperor of Austria, Fran- 
cis I. until 1835). 

1792-1797. War between France and the First Coali- 
tion. 
A Girondist ministry (Roland, Dumouriez) took the place of the 

constitutionalist ministry, whose fall was caused by the declaration of 

Pillnitz. 

April 20. Declaration of war against Austria. Three armies in the 
field. Rochambeau (48,000), between Dunkirk and Philippe- 
ville; Lafayette (52,000), between Philippeville and Lauter- 
bourg ; Luckner (42,000), between Lauterbourg and Basle. 
The fortune of war was against the French, which increased 
the revolutionary excitement at Paris. Dismissal of the min- 
istry of Roland (June 13). 

June 20. Invasion of the Tuileries by the mob. Calm behavior of 
the king ; the bonnet rouge. 

July 11. The Legislative Assembly pronounced the country in dan- 
ger. Formation of a volunteer army of revolutionists through- 
out the country. Threatening manifesto of the duke of Bruns- 
wick. 
The municipal council of Paris broken up and its place usurped by 

commissioners from the sections ; the new commune (288 members). 

Aug. 10. (Tenth of August). Storm of the Tuileries by the mob, in 
consequence of an order given by the king to the Swiss guards, 
who were advancing victoriously, to cease firing. Massacre of 
the Swiss guards. The king took refuge in the hall of the 

A.ug. 13. Assembly, was suspended, and placed in the tower of the 
temple (the old house of the Knights Templars). Numerous 
arrests of suspected persons. The Jacobins in power. Call of 
a national convention, elected by manhood suffrage, to draw 
up a constitution for the state. 

Aug. 20. Lafayette, impeached and proscribed, fled, was captured by 
the Austrians and imprisoned in Olmiltz (till 1796). Verdun 
taken by the Prussians ; battles at Grandpre and Valmy. 

Bept. 2-7. Jail delivery at Paris : terrible massacre, lasting five 
days, of royalists and constitutionalists detained in the prisons, 
instigated by the city council and by Danton, the minister of justice. 
Like scenes took place at Versailles, Lyons, Rheims, Meaux and Or- 
leans. 

20 Sept. French (Dumouriez, Kellermann) success at Valmy against 
the allies (duke of Brunsiuick). 

1792, Sept. 21-1795, Oct. National Convention com- 
posed entirely of republicans (749 members, 486 new 
men). Parties, Girondists (right, Vergniaud, Brissot) 



A. D. First French Revolution. 453 

and the Mountain (left ; members for Paris, Robespierre, 
duke of Orleans {Philip Egalite), Danton, Collot oV 
Herbois). 

1792. Abolition of the monarchy. France declared a 
Sept. 21. Republic. 

Sept. 22 was the first day of the year one of the French repub- 
lic. Citoyen et citoyenne ; decree of perpetual banishment against 
emigrants; tu et toi. Inglorious retreat of the Prussians through 
Champagne to Luxembourg and across the Rhine. The French general, 
Custine, took Speier, Mainz, and Frankfort on the Main. Occupation 
of Nice and Savoy (Sept.). 

1792. Victory of the French general Dumouriez at Jemmapes. He 
Nov. 6. took Brussels and conquered the Austrian Netherlands. The 

Prussians retook Frankfort. 
Nov. 19. Proclamation of the convention offering French assistance 
to all peoples who wished to throw off their present govern- 
ment. 

Savoy and Nice annexed ; the Schelde opened to commerce (p. 
408). 

1792, Dec. -1793, Jan. Triai of Louis XVI. before the convention. 

Barrere prosecutor ; Malebher^es, Deseze, Tronchet, for the de- 
fense. 
Proposed appeal to the nation rejected. January 15, 683 votes out 
of 721 declared the king guilty. Jan. 16, 361 votes, exactly a major- 
ity (among them that of the duke of Orleans (Egalite), were cast 
unconditionally for death, 360 being cast for imprisonment, banish- 
ment, or death with respite. 

1793, Jan. 21. Execution of Louis XVI. 

Feb. 1. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain. 

England, Holland, Spain and the Empire, joined the alliance 
against France, Sardinia having been at war with the latter power 
since July, 1792. Annexation of Belgium. The emigrants, under the 
prince of Conde, proclaimed Louis XVII., who was a prisoner in the 
temple. 

Royalistic revolt in the Vendee, upon occasion of a levy of recruits. 
(Charette, Stqfflet, Cathelineau, La Rochejaquelein). 

The Austrians under the duke of Coburg defeated Dumouriez at 
Neerwinden (March 18), and recaptured Brussels. Dumouriez went 
over to the Austrians with the duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe, son 
of Egalite'. 
March 9. Establishment of the revolutionary tribunal. 

At Paris, in the convention, struggle for life and death, between 
the Girondists and the Mountain. After the failure of the plan of the 
Orleanists, belonging to the Mountain, to make the duke of Orleans 
(Egalite), protector, all power centred in the Committee of General 
Security and the 

1793. Committee of Public Safety (Comite du Saint 
April 6. Public). Composed of nine (afterwards twelve) members, 



454 Modern History. a. d. 

who exercised dictatorial power. Leaders : Danton (from the 
first); Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon (these three in July) ; 
afterwards, Carnot, who managed the military department 
only, and Collot d'Herbois (Sept.). The third, and in reality 
the greatest power in the state, was the commune of Paris, 
now reorganized on the basis of manhood suffrage, and acting 
through its committee, now numbering only twenty, at the 
Hotel de Ville, under the guidance of Chaumette, and especially 
of Hebert (editor of Le Pere Duchesne). 
Financial difficulties. New issues of assignats based on the 
lands of the emigrants, the sale of which was ordered. At- 
tempts to check the depreciation of assignats by severe penal- 
ties. 
June 2. An uprising of the mob, organized by the commune of 
Paris, commanded by Henriot, compelled the convention to ar- 
rest thirty-one Girondists (Brissot, Vergniaud, Pe'tion). 

The second, fully democratic constitution, as passed by the conven- 
tion, was sent to the primary assemblies of voters for ratification, but 
never came to execution. 

1793, July 13. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (executed 
July 15). 

1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. 

Robespierre at the head of the state. Revolutionary commit- 
tees throughout the country. Commissaries of the committee of 
public safety committed unheard-of atrocities in the large cities of the 
provinces. Tallien at Bordeaux, Lebon in Arras, Carrier in Nantes, 
Challier, Couthon, Fouche, Collot d'Herbois in Lyons. 

Mainz captured by the Prussians after a siege of three months 
(July). The allies took the fortresses of Conde and Valenciennes. 
For this reason Custine was executed at Paris. The English laid siege 
to Toulon. The troops of the Republic were driven back at almost 
all points. Revolts in the. interior, partially conducted by Girondists 
who had escaped from Paris. Energetic measures of the committee 
of public safety (Carnot). 

1793, Aug. 23. Levy of the whole male population capable of bear- 
ing arms. Fourteen armies were soon placed in the field. Caen, 
Bordeaux, Marseilles, conquered by the republicans. Lyons 
Oct. captured after a two months' siege and partially destroyed ; 
Massacre of the inhabitants (Collot, Fouche ; la commune affran- 
chie.) 
Sept. 17. Establishment of a maximum price for a vast number of 
commodities ; also for wages. The state exacted ail its labor 
and goods at the maximum price and paid in assignats at the 
face value, the market value being one third of the face. 
Law authorizing the imprisonment of all persons suspected (lot 

des suspects) of being unfriendly to the republic. 
Defeat of the Vendeans at Chollet (Oct. 20) and at Le Mans 
(Dec. 12). Revolutionary tribunal at Nantes (15,000 persons 
put to death in the three months of October, November, Decem- 
ber by Carrier j noyades, fusillades, mariages repabUcutns). 



A. D. First French Revolution. 455 

Oct. 16. Execution of the queen, Marie Antoinette. 
Oct. 31. Execution of the Girondists (21). Reign of the revolu- 
tionary tribunal and the guillotine {Place de la Revolution, now 
Place de la Concorde) ; Fouquier-Tinville, public prosecutor. 
Sixty executions a month ; neglect of legal forms. 
Execution of Bailly, Egalite (Nov.), Madame Roland. Abolition 
of the worship of God. Cult of reason (Hebert, Chaumette, Cloots). 
Profanation of the royal sepulchre at St. Denis. 

Revolutionary calendar. Beginning of the year one, Sept. 22, 
1792. The months : Vende'miaire, Brumaire, Frimaire; Nivose, Plu- 
viose, Ventose ; Germinal, Flore'al, Prairial ; Messidor, Thermidor, 
Fructidorj each month had thirty days, five intercalary days (sans cu- 
lottides), every tenth day a holiday. Transportation of priests. 
Nov. 10. Festival of reason in Notre Dame. Abolition of the old 
army. Creation of a new army. Capture of Conde, Valen- 
ciennes, Le Quesnoi by the allies (Coburg). J our dan commander of 
the French forces. 

Oct. 11-13. Storm of the French lines at Weissenburg on the Rhine 
by Austrians and Prussians {Pichegru, commander of the French 
on the Rhine, Hoche, of the army on the Moselle.) 
Nov. Defeat of Hoche by the duke of Brunswick at Kaiserslautern. 
Dec. Pichegru defeated the Austrians under Wurmser. Retreat of 
the allies across the Rhine. Worms and Speier recaptured. 
Toulon rescued from the English. 
First appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, at 
Ajaccio in Corsica ; 1779 at the military school in Brienne ; 1785 
lieutenant in Valence, 1793 captain • at Toulon, colonel; after the cap- 
ture, brigadier-general ; adherent of the revolutionary movement, in 
close connection with the Jacobins, particularly with the two Robes- 
pierres, although he afterward denied it 1 ). 

1794. Robespierre (representing the committee of public safety) 
crushed both parties which were opposed to him, the ultra-rev- 
olutionary commune {Hebertists) and the moderate Dantonists (the 
Mountain), using one against the other. After an unsuccessful at- 
tempt at an insurrection 

March 24. Condemnation and execution of the Hebertists (Chaumette, 
Hebert, Cloots, etc.). March 29, condemnation of the Dan- 
tonists. 
April 6. Execution of Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Herault de 

Sechelles, etc. 
April 18. Defeat of the allies by Pichegru at Turcoing. 
April 19. Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia ; sub- 
sidies for 60,000 men. 
Unhampered rule of the Committee of Public Safety. 
Robespierre abolished the worship of reason and caused the 
convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of 
a supreme being. 
June 8. Fetes de VEtre supreme ; Robespierre high priest. 
June 10. Portentous increase of power bestowed on the revolution- 
ary tribunal. Juries to convict without hearing evidence or 
1 P. Lanrrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. 



456 Modern History. A. D« 

argument. Enormous increase of executions, running up to 
354 a month. 
June 25. Capture of Charleroi by the French. 

June 26. Battle of Fleurus, repulse of the allies under Coburg. 
Evacuation of Belgium. 
An attempt to exterminate the Vendeans (Turreau) caused a fresh 
outbreak of the war. 

Conspiracy of the Mountain and the moderates against Robespierre 
( Tallien, Fre'ron, Fouche, Vadier, Collot d'Herbois, Billaud- Varennes) . 

1794, July 27 (9th Thermidor). Fall of Robespierre, 

arrest of the two Robespierres, of Couthon and St. dust ; 
being released they were outlawed, surprised at the Hotel 
de Ville, and executed, with eighteen others. On the 
following days over eighty of his party were executed. 
The commune was nearly extinct. 
1794-1795. The National Convention controlled by the mod- 
erates. 
Meanwhile the armies of the republic had been fortunate on the bor- 
ders. The Prussians, victors at Kaiserslautern in May, 1794, after 
a second battle at the same place in Sept., retired across the Rhine. 
The duke of Coburg, defeated June 26, 1794, by Jourdan at Fleurus, 
resigned his command. The Austrians retired across the Rhine (see 
above). 

In Paris the power of the commune, of the Jacobins, and of the 
mob was gradually broken by the Thermidorians, or the supporters of 
the moderate revolution, and by the violence of the young men of the 
upper classes (called later the jeunesse doree). The Jacobin club 
closed (Nov. 12). Those Girondists who had escaped with their lives 
were readmitted to their seats in the convention (Dec. 8, 1794, March 
8, 1795). Execution of Carrier and Fouquier-Tinville. 

Public misery. Repeal of the maximum (Dec. 24, 1794). New 
issues, increased depreciation of assignats ; in May, 1795, they were 
worth 7 per cent. 

1795, April 1 (Germinal 12). Bread riots in Paris ; attack on the 

convent suppressed ; transportation of Billaud, Collot, Barrere, 
Vadier. Growing reaction in the capital and the provinces. 
Return of emigrants. Reactionary terror (The White Terror). 

May 20 (Prairial 1). Insurrection, or bread riot. Fierce attack 
upon the convention. Firmness of the president, Boissy 
d'Anglas. Suppression of the outbreak, May 20. Extermina- 
tion of the Mountain. 
Meantime the armies of France were everywhere successful. 

Pichegru had invaded Holland in the winter of 1794-1795. The 

hereditary stadthalter fled to England. 

1795-1806. Batavian Republic founded, which surrendered Dutch 
Flanders to France. Tuscany withdrew from the coalition and 
concluded peace with France. Prussia, whose finances were exhausted 
and which had quarreled with Austria, concluded with the convention 
the 



A. d. First French Revolution. 457 

1795, April 5. Peace of Basle (Hardenberg), 

which Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel joined. Open condi- 
tions : 1. France continued in possession of the Prussian territory on 
the left bank of the Rhine, until peace should be concluded with the 
empire. 2. A line of demarkation fixed the neutrality of northern 
Germany. Secret articles : Prussia consented to the absolute cession 
of the left bank of the Rhine to France and received the assurance of 
a recompense through secularization. 

After other notable successes of the French, Spain concluded the 
1795, July. Peace of Basle. Spanish St. Domingo was ceded to 
France ; all other conquests were restored (Godoy, the 
Spanish minister, prince of the peace). 

In the naval war the English were for the most part in the ascend- 
ency. 
1795, June 8. Death of the ten-year-old dauphin (Louis XVII.) in 

the temple, where he had been most shamefully abused. 1 
June 27. English and emigrants land at Quiberon (Brittany) to assist 
the royalists of that region (Chouans), but were defeated by 
HocJie (July 16-21)] and over 700 emigrants executed. 

Retaliatory massacre of 1,000 republican prisoners by Charette. 
Conclusion of the war of the Vendee, defeat of the insurgents 
by Hoche. Execution of Stoffiet and Charette (latter March 29, 
1796). 

At Paris adoption of a new (third) constitution. Constitution 
of the year III., or 1795. The executive power was given to a 
directory of five persons ; the legislative to the council of elders (250), 
and the council of five hundred, but it was decreed that for the 
first term, two thirds of the members of both councils should be 
taken from among the members of the National Convention. 

Opposition to this limitation of choice at Paris and in the provinces. 
The royalists in the capital instigated an outbreak of the sections 
(city districts or wards). On the motion of Barras, general Bona- 
parte was placed in command of the troops of the convention. Bona- 
parte crushed the revolt by the bloody victory of the 
1795, Oct. 5. 13th Vendemiaire, called the Day of the Sections. 
Cannonade from the church of St. Roch. The convention dis- 
solved (Oct. 26) after having voted (Oct. 25, Brumaire 3) that 
relatives of emigrants could hold no office. 

1795-1799- Government of the Directory in France. 

Substitution of mandats convertible into a specified amount of land 
for the assignats, of which 145 billion francs had been issued. 

In the Vendee, after a short truce, a new and bloody war, which 
spread to Brittany (Chouans). Hoche suppressed the revolt in the 
Vende'e (ended March 5, 1796). 

By the advice of Carnot the directory undertook a triple attack 
npon Austria. 1. The army of the Sambre and Meuse under J our dan 

1 The death of the dauphin, officially estahlished and evidenced by many 
witnesses, is beyond doubt. The pretenders who assumed his name later were, 
©ne and all, impostors. 



458 Modern History. A. d. 

advanced from the lower Rhine to Franconia ; 2. the army of the 
Rhine and Moselle under Moreau penetrated from the upper Rhine to 
Swabia and Bavaria ; 3. the army of Italy under Napoleon Bona- 
parte was to attack Austria in Italy, and unite with the two former 
by way of Tyrol. 

The German campaign opened successfully for the French. Jour- 
dan and Moreau invaded south Germany. Baden, Wiirtemberg, and 
Bavaria were compelled to conclude truces. Suddenly fortune 
changed. 

1796. Archduke Charles of Austria (brother of the emperor 
Francis) took the offensive against Jourdan, defeated him at 
Amberg (Aug.^, and at Wiirzburg (Sept. 3). Jourdan retreated 
to the Sieg, and resigned his command. The archduke then turned 
upon Moreau, who retired to the upper Rhine (retreat through the 
Black Forest). 
1796, Mar. 9. Marriage of Bonaparte with Josephine de Beauharnais. 

1796. Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. Starting from 
Nice he followed the coast, defeated the Austrians in the 

April. Battles at Millesimo, the Piedmontese at Mondovi, and 
compelled the king of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus, to conclude 

May. A separate peace. 1. Cession of Savoy and Nice to the 
French republic. 2. The French garrisoned the Piedmontese 
fortresses. 

Offensive and defensive alliance between France and Spain, the 
latter declaring war on England. 

May 10. Pursuit of the Austrians. Storming of the bridge over the 
Adda at Lodi ; Napoleon entered Milan (May 15), conquered 
the whole of Lombardy as far as Mantua. The dukes of 
Parma and Modena, the Pope and Naples, purchased a truce 
with money and art treasures. Definite peace with the Pope 
at Tolentino in Feb. 1797 ; the Pope ceded the Romagna, 
Bologna, and Ferrara. 

1796-1797. Siege of Mantua. Four attempts on the part of 

July. Feb. the Austrians to relieve the fortress. The Austrians 
defeated at Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, at 

Nov. 15-19. Arcole, and at 

1797, Jan. Rivoli. Mantua surrendered (Feb. 2). 

1797) March- April. Bonaparte crossed the Alps 

to meet archduke Charles who was advancing from Germany. 

The inhabitants of the Venetian territory rose against the French ; 
in Tyrol and Bohemia the people were called to arms. Bonaparte, in 
danger of being cut off, opened negotiations, which led to the conclu- 
sion of the 

1797. Preliminary peace of Leoben, under the following condi- 
April 18. tions, which, however, were materially changed in the 
definite peace of Campo Formio (see below). 

1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress 
should mediate for peace with the empire on the basis of the integ- 
rity of the empire. 3. Austria ceded the region beyond the Ogiio, 



A. d. First French Revolution. 459 

receiving in return the Venetian territory between the Oglio, Po, 
and Adriatic (which she was to conquer for herself), Venetian Dal- 
matia and Istria, and the fortresses of Mantua, Peschiera, and Palma 
Nova. 4. Venice was to be indemnified with the Romagna, Bologna, 
and Ferrara. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic which 
was to be formed in northern Italy. 

1797, May. The French declared war upon Venice, under pretext 
of an outbreak at Verona. Abolition of the aristocracy and 
establishment of popular government. Occupation of the republic 
by French troops ; also of the Venetian islands of Greece (Ionian). 

Proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic {Milan, Modena, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Romagna). Transformation of the republic of 
Genoa into the Ligurian Republic under French control. 

1797, Sept. 4. 18th Fructidor. Coup d'Etat at Paris. 
Victory of the republican party over the party of reaction, 
which was represented in the council of five hundred, in the council 
of ancients, and in the directory. The three republican directors, 
Barras, Rewbel, and La Revelliere defeated their colleagues, Bar- 
thelemy and Carnot. The latter escaped by flight ; Barthelemy 
and many of his adherents, including Pichegru, were transported to 
Cayenne. 

After lengthy negotiations, France and Austria concluded the 

Oct. 17. Peace of Campo Formio. 

Open articles : 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 
2. A congress was convened at Rastadt to discuss peace with the 
empire. 3. Austria received the territory of Venice as far as 
the Adige, with the city of Venice, Istria, and Dalmatia. 4. France 
retained the Ionian islands. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine 
Republic and indemnified the duke of Modena with the Breisgau. 
Secret articles : 1. Austria agreed to the cession of the left bank of 
the Rhine from Basle to Andernach, including Mainz, to France ; the 
navigation of the Rhine was left open to France and Germany in 
common ; those princes who lost by the cession were to receive in- 
demnification in Germany. 2. France was to use her influence 
to secure to Austria, Salzburg, and that portion of Bavaria which 
lay between Salzburg, the Tyrol, the Inn, and the Salza. 3. Re- 
ciprocal guarantee that Prussia should not receive any new acquisi- 
tion of territory in return for her cessions on the left bank of the 
Rhine. 

1796-1801. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, succeeded his 
mother Catharine II. (p. 411). 

1797-1840. Frederic "William III., King of Prussia. 
Wollner dismissed. Edict of religion revoked. 

1797, Dec-1799, April. Congress of Rastadt. No agreement. 

1798. The French occupied Rome. Proclamation of the 
Feb. Roman Republic. Captivity of the Pope, Pius VI. 

Disturbances in Switzerland. The French entered the country. 
The confederacy transformed into one 



460 Modem History. A. d. 

1798, April. Helvetian Republic. Geneva annexed to France. 
1798-1799. Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, 

prepared under the mask of an invasion of England, against 
whose East Indian Empire this expedition was in truth directed. 
Army of England at Boulogne. The opposition of the directory being 
overcome the fleet sailed from Toulon (May 19, 1798), with 35,000 
men, accompanied by a large number of scientists. Bonaparte, Ber- 
thier, Kleber, later, Desaix. Capitulation and occupation of Malta (June 
12), disembarkation in Egypt (July 1). Capture of Alexandria (July 
2). Battle of the Pyramids won against the Mamelukes (July 21). 
Capture of Cairo (July 22). Desaix advances toward upper Egypt. 
The English fleet annihilated the French in the 

1798. Battle of the Nile at Aboukir (Nelson), thus cut- 
Aug. 1. ting off the French army from France. 

A popular uprising in Cairo suppressed. The Porte having de- 
clared war upon France, Bonaparte attacked the pasha of Syria, 
stormed Jaffa (massacre of 1200 prisoners) but was unable to capture 
St. Jean aVAcre (Akko), the defense of which was supported by the 
English. Bonaparte victorious over the Turks at Mt. Tabor (April 
16). Pestilence in the French army. Retreat to Egypt. Arrival of 
the Turks at Aboukir, where they were completely defeated by 
Bonaparte (Murat), 1799, July 25. 
1799-1801. War of the second coalition, 

composed of Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, the 
Ottoman Porte, and owing its origin chiefly to Paul I., emperor of 
Russia, whom the Knights of Malta had elected grand master. 

Plan of the allies : 1. An English-Russian army (duke of York) was 
to drive the French from the Netherlands. 2. An Austrian army (arch- 
duke Charles) should drive them out of Germany and Switzerland, 
while 3. a Russian-Austrian army expelled them from Italy (Suvaroff 
and Melas). 

The war began in the latter part of 1798 by a Neapolitan invasion 
of the Roman Republic, under the Austrian general Mack. The in- 
vasion was repulsed, the king of Naples fled to Palermo, the kingdom 
of Naples was occupied by the French and transformed into the 

1799. Parthenopeean Republic. The grand duke of Tuscany was 
Jan. driven from his domains. The king of Sardinia escaped from 

Turin and took up his residence in Caglian in Sardinia; his for- 
tresses upon the mainland were placed under French control. After 
1802 they were annexed to France. 

The directory opposed to the coalition six armies under as many com- 
manders. 1. Brune in Holland ; 2. Bernadotte on the middle Rhine; 
3. Jourdan on the upper Rhine ; 4. Massena in Switzerland ; 5. 
Scherer, afterwards Moreau, in upper Italy; 6. Macdonald in Naples. 
1799. Jourdan, defeated by archduke Charles at Ostrach and Stock- 
March, ach, retreated across the Rhine and laid down his command. 

His army and that of Bernadotte were placed under Massena. 
April. Scherer defeated by the Austrians at Magnano. His successor, 

Moreau, defeated by the Austrians (Melas) and Russians (Su- 

varqff) at Cassano. Abolition of the Cisalpine Republic. 



A. d. First French Revolution. 461 

1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Rastadt. Mysterious 
murder of the French ambassadors, Roberjot and Bonnier (De- 
bry escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from 
Transylvania (Apr. 28). 
June 4-7. Massena defeated by archduke Charles at Zurich. Mac- 
donald being called to uppe r Italy, the king of Naples returned 
and the Parthenopsean Republic was abolished. Terrible ven- 
geance, accompanied by massacres. Nelson, Lady Hamilton. 
Abolition of the Roman Republic. 
June 17-19. Macdonald defeated by Suvaroff on the Trebbia. Man- 
tua taken by the allies. The directory sent Joubert to Italy 
with a new army. He was defeated in the bloody 
Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvaroff and Melas. Joubert. f Su- 
varoff crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Gothard in order 
to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had 
taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the mid- 
dle Rhine, in Switzerland. 

His army however had already been defeated at Zurich by Mas- 
sena. Suvaroff left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and 
marches, and returned to Russia. 

A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French 
control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Isl- 
ands under Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which 
occupied the same until 1807. 

June 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory 
under Sieyes • a revolution which resulted in the return of 
Bonaparte. 

1799> Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated 

at Alkmar. 

Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egypt, landed at 
Frejus, and in alliance with the directors, 

June. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, 
president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the direc- 
tory by the 

Nov. 9, Coup d'Etat of the 18th Brumaire, 

and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following 
day. 

1799-1804. The Government of the Consulate 

with Napoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of first 
consul for ten years, and two consuls appointed by him, Cambaceres and 
Lebrun, who had consultative voices only. » 

The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VIII.) , ori- 
ginally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and 
accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (3,000,000 to 1,567), pre- 
served the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military 
monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but 
little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the depart- 
ments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials 
and the judges. Legislative power ivithout the initiative: 1. tribunate 



162 Modern History. A. D. 

(100) discussed the proposals of the government without voting, 
2. The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these 
proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of 
the first consul, who was aided by a council of state. 

The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a 
tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were 
elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list 
the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies. 

Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments) and 
sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent 
creation of that centralization which still prevails in France. New 
system of tax-collection ; receveur-gene'ral for each department (abol= 
ished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arron- 
dissement. Code Napoleon commenced. 

The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. 
Paul, emperor of Russia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flat- 
tery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive alliance between 
Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and 
Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Re- 
newal of the previous (1780) armed neutrality at sea (p. 536). North- 
ern convention (1800). 

1800. Double campaign of the French in Italy under Napo* 
leon Bonaparte, in Upper Germany under Moreau. 

April. A. In Italy. 

Massena defeated at Voltri • Melas advanced to Nice. Obsti- 
nate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult) ; after a terri- 

June 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to 

May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by 
Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). 

June 2. Capture of Milan. Restoration of the Cisalpine Republic. 
General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had 
once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 

1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon. 

Desaix f . According to the truce concluded with Melas, all 
fortresses west of the Mincio and south of the Po were sur- 
rendered by the Austrians to the French. 
B. In Germany : Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in 
April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stock- 
ach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce 
until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau 
defeated the archduke John in the 

1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden, 

captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. 
After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mincio (Dec.^ 
and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was conclu- 
ded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the 

1801, Feb. 9. Peace of Luneville, 

from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Empke 
practically dates- 



A.. Do First French Revolution. 463 

Chief conditions : 1. Ratification of the cessions made by Austria 
and to her in the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459). 2. Cession of 
the grand duchy of Tuscany (Austrian secundogeniture) to Par- 
ma, to be indemnified in Germany. 3. The Emperor and Empire 
consented to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, the 
valley of the Rhine (£. e. the middle of the river), the boundary. The 
princes who lost by this operation received indemnification in 
Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, 
and Ligurian Republics. Germany lost by this peace, taking 
the Belgic territory into account, 25,180 square miles with almost 
3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received an increase of 
territory. The shameful negotiations over the indemnifications lasted 
more than two years (p. 465), during which time the ambassadors 
of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to 
beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and 
their mistresses. 

Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the 
satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Parma, a Spanish secundogeni- 
ture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it 
to the United States (1803). The peace of Luneville was succeeded, 
after conclusion of a truce, by the 
1801, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 

1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. 
Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of 
Elba. 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns. 

Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupa- 
tion of Hanover. 
1801, March 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was 

succeeded by his son, 
1801-1825. Alexander I. 

Reconciliation between Russia and England (in 1801 England 

had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to 

withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern 

Convention was now dissolved. 

1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal ma- 
chines. 130 " Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although 
the attempts had originated with the royalists. 

In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte 
had devolved upon Kleber, who defeated the Turks in the battle 
of Heliopolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kleber at Cairo 
(June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty 
with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be 
abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army 
transported to France by the English fleet. 

1801. Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. 
In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long 
negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a 

1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French 
archbishops and (50) bishops were to be appointed and sup- 
ported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VII., 
elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognized in the possession of the 



464 Modern History. A. D. 

Papal States, without Ferrara, Bologna, and the Romagna. The lib- 
erties of the Gallican church were strongly asserted. By the new 
organization of the " Universite," an incorporated body of teachers 
who had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher 
education was made dependent upon the government. The institut 
national was reorganized and divided into four (later Jive) academies : 
1. academie francaise (1635) ; 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettres 
(1663, 1701) ; 3. a. des sciences (1666) j 4. a. des beaux arts (1648) ; 
5. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832). 

After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabi- 
net, and after long negotiations, the 
1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens 

was concluded between England and Prance. 

1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and her 
allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon 
which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized 
the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. Malta must be restored to 
the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, 
peace was concluded between France and the Porte. 

Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). As- 
sumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused 
himself to be elected by a popular vote (plebiscite, 3| millions), 

1802, August 2. Consul for life, with the right of appointing his 

successor. 
New (fifth) constitution. The powers of the senate, which was 
ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legis~ 
lative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced. 

Napoleon had already become president of the Italian Republic, as 
the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Pied- 
mont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French 
in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of 
mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the 
country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by 
a landamman and a diet. 

As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lune- 
ville was executed according to a plan of indemnification established 
by France and Russia by the 

1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. (Reichs- 

deputationshauptschluss) . 2 
Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only : 1. the former 
elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed 
out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of 
the Rhine, the bishopric of Regensburg, and the cities of Regensburg 
and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the Teu- 
tonic order. 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 
6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities : Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and 
Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremberg. All other ecclesiastical estates and 
imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bish- 
oprics of Trier and Cologne were abolished. Four new electorates ' 
aesse-Cassel, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Salzburg. 

1 Eiehhorn, Deutsche Staals u.Rec/Usgeschichte, I V. § 606. 



A. r>. First French Revolution. 465 

Principal Indemnifications : 1. The grand duchy of Tuscany : Salz- 
burg, and Berchtesgaden. 2. Duke of Modena : Breisgau (in ex- 
change for which Austria received the ecclesiastical foundations of 
Trient and Brixen). 3. Bavaria : bishoprics of Wiirzburg, Bamberg, 
Freising, Augsburg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities 
in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 4. Baden 
received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right bank of the 
Rhine {Heidelberg, Mannheim). Baden also received : the portion of 
the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasburg, Speyer, on the right 
bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial 
cities. 5. Wtirtemberg : many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial 
cities, especially Reutlingen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prussia : the 
bishoprics of Paderborn, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had 
belonged to Mainz (Eichfeld and Erfurt), a part of Miinster, many 
abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Miihlhau- 
sen, Nordhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg : bishopric of Liibeck. 8. 
Hanover : bishopric of Osnabruck. 9. Hesse (Darmstadt and Cas-- 
sel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, 
Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine. 
10. Nassau-Orange : bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As 
a rule the indemnified princes gained considerably in territory and 
subjects. ■ 

1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the 
refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. 

The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the 
resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened 
England with an invasion. 

Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, 
Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadou- 
dal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, 
a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Conde, was taken by violence 
from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in 
accordance with the wishes and under the order of Napoleon, 1 with- 
out the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes 
on the night of March 20-21. On the 18th of May the tribunate and 
senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte, 

1804-1814 (15) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of 

the French. 

The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the 
privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which 
and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bona- 
parte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of 
lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). 
The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Pius VII. (Dec. 2), placing 
the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of 

1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted by Thiers and others, 
throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon I. afterwards endeav- 
ored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditated 
murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Lanfrey, Eistoire de 
Napoleon I. iii. 128, foil. 
30 



466 



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A. d. Napoleonic Wars. 467 

Charles the Great, who, as Charlemagne, was transformed into a 
Frenchman and prototype of Napoleon). Establishment of a bril- 
liant court. Grand dignitaries of the empire ; eighteen marshals. 
New nobility. An absolute monarchy of the purest type. (Aboli- 
tion of the tribunate, 1807.) 
1805. Napoleon king of Italy. His stepson Eugene Beauharnais, 

son of Josephine, viceroy of Naples. The Ligurian Republic 

incorporated with France. 

1805- Third coalition against France, 

between England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden (Gustavus 
IV.), for the purpose of restoring the balance of power in Europe. 
Spain allied with France. 

The camp at Boulogne broken up. The French armies under Da- 
vout, Soult, Lannes, Ney, advanced toward the Rhine. The main 
force of the Austrians in Italy under archduke Charles opposed to 
Massena • in Germany, under archduke Ferdinand and Mack. Napo- 
leon commanded in person in Germany ; relying on the support of 
most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians 
who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated 
his forces (200,000 men), reinforced by Bernadotte, who on his way 
from Hanover had marched through the neutral territory of Ansbach 
in Prussia, and by troops from Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, 
Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians (80,000 men) had been de- 
feated in several engagements, and the main army was surrounded 
by the French, 

1805. Mack surrendered in Ulm with the whole Austrian army 
Oct. 17. (30,000 men), prisoners of war. 

On the sea England opened the war brilliantly with the 

1805- Victory of Nelson at Trafalgar 
Oct. 21. over the French and Spanish fleet. Death of Nelson 
(" England expects every man to do his duty "). This vic- 
tory broke the naval power of France. 

The French marched upon Vienna, which was taken by Mural 
without resistance. Archduke Charles, who had driven back Massena, 
returned to Germany ; a Russian army under Kutusoff, a second un- 
der the emperor Alexander, came to the assistance of Austria. In 
the 

1805. Battle of Austerlitz (the battle of the three em- 
Dec. 2. perors), Napoleon defeated the united forces of Austria 

and Russia. Truce with Austria. Retreat of the Russians. 
Dec. 15. Treaty concluded by Prussia, which was on the point of 
joining the coalition, with Napoleon at Schonbrunn (Haug- 
witz). Prussia ceded to France the remaining part of Cleve 
(Wesel) on the left bank of the Rhine, Ansbach, and Neuchdtel, 
and was promised Hanover in exchange. 

Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg, between Prance and Austria. 

1. France received Piedmont, Parma, and Piacenza. 2. Austria 

ceded to the kingdom of Italy all that she had received of Venetian 



468 Modem History. A. d. 

territory at the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459) ; also Venetian 
Jstria and Dalmatia, and recognized Napoleon as king of Italy. 3. 
Austria ceded to Bavaria : Tyrol, Vorarlberg, the bishoprics Brixen 
and Trient, Burgau, Eichstadt, Passau, Lindau, besides which Bavaria 
received the free city of Augsburg. 4. Austria ceded to Wiirtem- 
berg and Baden what remained of the western Austrian lands. 5. 
Bavaria and Wurtemberg were recognized as kingdoms. 6. 
Austria received as indemnification : Salsburg, Berchtesgaden, and 
the estates of the Teutonic order which were secularized. The elec- 
tor of Salzburg received Wiirzburg from Bavaria as indemnification. 
Russia remained hostile. 

1805. The Bourbons in Naples were dethroned by a proclamation 
Dec. issued by Napoleon from Schonbrunn (La dynastie de Naples 

a cesse de regner). 

1806. Joseph, Napoleon's elder brother, king of Naples. The 
conrt of Naples withdrew to Palermo. 

Sicily was beyond Napoleon's reach, as the English controlled the 
sea. 

Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, created grand duke 
of Berg • Marshal Berthier, prince of Neuchdtel ; Louis Bonaparte, 
Napoleon's third brother, king of Holland (the former Batavian Re- 
public). 

1806. Establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. 
July 12. 

Napoleon, protector. Prince Primate, formerly electoral arch- 
chancellor ; the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg ; the grand dukes 
of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Berg, duke of Nassau, etc. After- 
wards all the German princes joined the confederation except Aus- 
tria, Prussia, Brunswick, and the electorate of Hesse. 

Many princes holding immediately of the empire mediatized. The 
free city of Nuremberg assigned to Bavaria, Frankfort to the prince 
primas (grand duke of Frankfort). 

Emperor Francis, who had already assumed the title of emperor 
of his hereditary Austrian estates (1804), 

1806, Aug. 6. Abdicated the crown of the Holy Roman 
empire. End of the old German empire. 

1806-1835. Francis I., emperor of Austria. 

1806-1807- (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia. 

Grounds of the Prussian declaration of war : Erection of the con- 
federacy of the Rhine, annexation of Wesel, seizure of Essen and 
Verden, garrisoning of half of Germany with French troops ; Napo- 
leon's offer to England to take away from Prussia the territory of 
Hanover which had just been forced upon her ; the Prussians were, 
moreover, embittered against the French by the high-handed execu- 
tion of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had published some 
strictures upon Napoleon. 

Dangerous situation of Prussia at the outbreak of war. The com- 
plete separation of the military and civil orders had brought it about 



A.. D. Napoleonic Wars. 469 

that the safety of the state rested on a half-trained army composed 
in part of foreigners, on a superannuated general, and on subordinate 
commanders who, full of arrogant pride in the ancient military fame 
of Prussia, regarded the French with contempt. No allies except 
Saxony and distant Russia. Dissension between Prussia and England. 
Want of decision in the cabinet and in the conduct of the war. 
1806. Concentration of the Prussian army in Thuringia under the 
old duke of Brunswick. Defeat of the Prussian advance at 
Saalfeld (Oct. 10), prince Louis Ferdinand f. In the 

1806, Oct. 14. Double battle of Jena and Auerst'adt 

the main army was completely defeated. Dissolution of the 
army. The reserve under the prince of Wiirtemberg was de- 
feated and scattered at Halle (Oct. 17). 
Napoleon in Berlin (Oct. 27). The prince of Hohenlohe with 
12,000 men was forced to surrender at Prenzlau (Oct. 28). Bliicher 
after a brave defence in Lubeck was obliged to surrender his whole 
corps at Ratkau as prisoners of war (Nov. 7). Incredibly hasty 
surrender of the fortresses : Erfurt, Spandau, Stettin, Kiistrin, Magde- 
burg, Hameln ■ only Kolberg {Gneisenau, Schill, Nettelbeck) and Grau- 
denz (Courbiere) defended themselves resolutely. The duke of Bruns- 
wick (f Nov. 10, at Ottensen) and the neutral elector of Hesse were 
driven out of the country. Coarse behavior of Napoleon toward the 
royal family (queen Louisa). Robbery of the museums and picture 
galleries. From his headquarters in Berlin Napoleon proclaimed (Nov. 
21) the senseless (paper) blockade of Great Britain and the closure 
of the continent to British trade, a policy summed up in the title, 
" Continental System " (" Berlin decree "). The troops of France, 
Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg invaded Silesia. The Poles summoned to 
revolt. Separate peace and alliance of Napoleon with the elector of 
Saxony (Dec. 11), who joined the confederacy of the Rhine as king 
of Saxony. Occupation of Hanover and the Hanseatic cities. 

1807. Fall of Breslau, followed by that of the most of the Silesian 
fortresses. After several bloody engagements in the neigh« 
borhocd of Pultusk, Prussians and Russians fought against the 
French, without decisive result, in the murderous 

1807, Feb. 7, 8. Battle of Eylau, 

where the Prussians repulsed the right wing of the French 

under Davout. Winter quarters. Frederic William III. went 

to Memel. 
xVlay 26. Danzig captured after a brave defense (KalckreutK). After 

several engagements Napoleon was victorious in the 

June 14. Battle of Friedland, 

over the Russians. Konigsberg and the country as far as the 
Niemen occupied by Napoleon. Truce with Russia (June 21), with 
Prussia (June 25). Meeting of Napoleon, Alexander, and Frederic 
William on the Niemen. 
1807- Peace of Tilsit. 
July 7. A. Between France and Russia. 
July 9. B. Between France and Prussia. 



470 Modern History. A. D. 

A. 1. Russia recognized the duchy of Warsaw, which was 
formed out of South Prussia, parts of West Prussia, and New East 
Prussia, under the king of Saxony. 2. Danzig restored to the con- 
dition of a free city. 3. A part of New East Prussia (BialystocF) 
ceded to Russia. 4. Russia recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
Naples, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, Jerome Bonaparte as 
king of Westphalia, a new kingdom yet to be created ; Russia, more- 
over, recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and accepted the 
mediation of Napoleon in concluding peace with the Turks, while 
Napoleon accepted the like good offices from Alexander in regard to 
England. In a secret article, Alexander agreed to an alliance with 
France against England, in case the latter refused to accept the prof- 
fered peace. 

B. 1. Prussia ceded : (a) to Napoleon for free disposal, all lands 
between the Rhine and Elbe ; (b) to Saxony, the circle of Cottbus ; (c) 
all lands taken from Poland since 1772 for the creation of a duchy of 
Warsaw, also the city and territory of Danzig. 2. Prussia recognized 
the sovereignty of the three brothers of Napoleon. 3. All Prussian 
harbors and lands were closed to British ships and British trade until 
the conclusion of a peace with England. 4. Prussia was to maintain 
a standing army of not more than 42,000 men. In regard to the res- 
toration and evacuation of the Prussian provinces and fortresses, it 
was settled by the treaty of Konigsberg (July 12), that Prussia should 
first pay all arrears of war indemnities. 

These indemnifications, fixed at nineteen million francs by the Prus- 
sian calculations, were set at 120 millions by the French, which sum 
was raised to 140 millions in 1808. After 120 millions had been 
paid the fortresses were evacuated, excepting Stettin, Kiistrin, and 
Glogau. Until this occurred the Prussian state, reduced as it was 
from 89,120 to 46,032 square miles, was obliged to support 150,000 
French troops. 

1807, Aug. Foundation of the kingdom of "Westphalia (capital, 
Cassel) by a decree of Napoleon, who reserved for himself 
half of the domains. 

High-handed proceeding of the English against Denmark, which 
had been summoned to join the continental system. An English fleet 
bombarded (1807, Sept.) Copenhagen, and carried off the Danish 
fleet. Alliance of Denmark with France. Russia declared war upon 
England. Stralsund and Rugen occupied by the French. 

Portugal, which refused to join the continental system, occupied 
by a French army under Junot (duke of Abrantes) Nov. 1807. 
The royal family fled to Brazil. Milan decree, Dec. 17, 1807. 

Spain invaded by 100,000 Frenchmen under the pretext of guard- 
ing the coasts against the English. Charles IV. (1788-1808) abdi- 
cated in favor of his son Ferdinand (March, 1808), in consequence 
of an outbreak which had occurred against his favorite, the prince of 
the peace, Godoy. Father and son, with Godoy, were enticed by Na- 
poleon to Bayonne and compelled to renounce the throne (May). 
Napoleon's brother Joseph became king of Spain, Murat taking the 
throne of Naples instead of Joseph. General uprising of the 
Spaniards. 



A. d. Napoleonic Wars. 471 

1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Brit- 
ain in Spain and Portugal. (" Peninsular War.") 

The English landed in Portugal and forced Junot to surrender 
Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country (Sir 
Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. 
Napoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the em- 
peror Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where 
four kings, thirty-four princes, and other German rulers who had done 
him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced 
to Madrid, and with Soult drove the English from Spain (battle of 
Corunna Jan. 16, 1809. Death of Sir John Moore). After the de- 
parture of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla war- 
fare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Saragossa (Palafox), 
which surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general, Sir Arthur 
Wellesley (b. 1769; officer in East India 1797-1805 ; M. P. 1806; vis- 
count Wellington, 1809 ; duke of Wellington, 1814 ; prime minister, 
1827-1830 ; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Tala- 
vera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made 
commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. 
Soult, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and 
Portuguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again. 

In Prussia, meanwhile, the state was reorganized after the dis- 
missal of Beymes and Zastrow, by Charles, baron of and in Stein 
(b. 1757 at Nassau ; since 1780, in Prussian civil service ; 1796 over- 
president of the chamber of Westphalia ; 1804 minister of finance, 
d. 1831), and Hardenberg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of 
industry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the adminis- 
tration of the public finances. Reorganization of the army on the basis 
of universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grolman, Boyen, 
Clausewitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1755, in Hanover, son of a peasant, offi- 
cer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken 
prisoner at Patkau with Bliicher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). 

Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, Al- 
tenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German 
nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, John. E. M. Arndt. Preparations 
for the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. 
Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by mak- 
ing use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war. 

1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walcheren (p. 537). 

1809. (Fifth) War with Austria. 

Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of Ba- 
varia, and archduke John, commander of the Austrian forces which 
were sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the 
struggle against the French supremacy. Tyrol alone heeded the 
summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Speckbachef). 

Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in Bavaria, with German 
Apr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after 
five days' fighting at Abensberg, Landshut, Eckmiihl and Re- 
May 13. gensburg, and captured Vienna for the second time. Na- 
poleon crossed the island of Lobau, to the left bank of the Dan- 
ube, where in the bloody 



472 Modern History. A. D. 

1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling 

(on the March/eld), he was, for the first time, defeated by 
archduke Charles, and (Lannes f) forced to recross the Dan- 
ube (Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who 
had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary 
and defeated him at Raab. With 180,000 men Napoleon 
crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in the 
murderous 
1809, July 5-6. Battle of Wagram, 

and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim. 
Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna 

between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schon- 
brunn. 
1. Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 3£ 
million inhabitants, viz. : a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Inn- 
viertel, and half of the Hausruckviertel to Bavaria ; b. West Galicia 
to the duchy of Warsaw ; c. one district in East Galicia (Tarnopol) 
to Russia ; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, 
Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who 
created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had 
surrendered to him in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces un- 
der Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the 
continental system, and broke oif all connection with England. 

The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic cour- 
age, but were in the end subdued. Hofer captured and shot by the 
French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol annexed to the king- 
dom of Italy. 

Bold attempt of Schill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war of 
liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, 
and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The news 
of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill 
fell righting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers 
were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were 
condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and 
after a half year's imprisonment in the bagno, or prison for galley- 
slaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 

1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunswick across northern Ger- 
many. He succeeded in transporting himself and the " Black 
Legion " to England. 
Gustavus IV., of Sweden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution 
and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had 
been since 1808 involved in war with Russia, which had conquered 
Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victim of his 
obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage 
of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Both- 
nia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mu- 
tiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on March 
13, 1809, by generals Klingspor and A dlerkreuz, obliged to abdicate, and 
dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The crown was given 
to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his 



a. D, Napoleonic Wars. 473 

son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Russia, Sept. 17, 1809, 
Sweden surrendered to Russia the principality of Finland as far as 
the river Tornea, together with the islands of Aland. By the media- 
tion of Russia Sweden concluded the peace of Paris with France, 
Jan. 6, 1810, whereby Sweden joined the continental system and 
obtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden 
death of prince Christian August of Holstein-Augustenburg, whom 
Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the 
French marshal Bernadotie (prince of Pontecorvo) was elected crown 
prince of Sweden. 

Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius VII. 
steadfastly refusing to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance 
with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, 
after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from 
Schonbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were 
incorporated with France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in 
June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble 
and thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's de- 
mands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for 
three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontainebleau.') 

In Turkey, after the deposition of Selim III., war broke out again 
with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuch, the 
Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which 
pursued them was captured (1811). 

1812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest : the Pruth was made the 
boundary between Russia and Turkey, 

1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria 

Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria.. Abdication and 
flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who had refused 
to ruin his country by joining the continental system. Annexation of 
Holland, as the " alluvial deposit of French rivers," to the French 
empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallis, and soon after of 
Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the grand 
duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French 
empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east 
as far as the Trave. 

In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon ; French, Italian, 
and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, 
overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. 
Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from 
Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the 
sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812). 

In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and 
capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). Retreat 
of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). Winter 
quarters. 1811, March ; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of 
Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena 
from Portugal. Soult, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was de- 
feated in the bloody 

1811, May 16. Battle of Albuera. The English returned to 
Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and 
Badajoz (April 6). 



474 Modern History. A. D. 

1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca ; victory of Wellington. Cap- 
ture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 

1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pomp- 
ous title of king of Rome. 

Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare 
and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losses- 
Cayenne, Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Gua° 
deloupe, Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batavia) 
1811. 

1812-1814. War between England and the United States of 
North America in consequence of commercial dissensions 
concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551). 

1812. (Sixth) War with Russia. 

Cause : Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The 
refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd continental system, 
which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had 
ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The ad- 
dition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of 
Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland 
should be contemplated ; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, 
his near relative, offended him deeply. 

Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men 
for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 
20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in main- 
taining neutrality during the war with Russia. Sweden (Berna- 
dotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon 
concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon 
England (1810), seized the opportunity of ihe Russian war, to shake 
off her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect 
of obtaining Norway, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of 
Swedish Pomerania and Riigen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty 
of St. Petersburg between Sweden and Russia, April : Russia 
promised Sweden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification 
for Denmark ; Sweden promised Russia to make a diversion in 
northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force. 

England concluded peace with Russia and Sweden at Orebro 
(June). 

The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, 
Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the con- 
federacy of the Rhine , in fact, the smaller part only of the army was 
French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, 
but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 553,000. The Aus- 
trians, under Schwarzenberg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under 
York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being 
under the command of Macdonald. 

1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army ; occupation of 
Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians under Barclay 
de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a 
battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, while 
the Prussians besieged Riga, and the Austrians penetrated Volhy* 



£. d. Napoleonic Wars. 475 

via. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 18). The Russian 
general Kutusoff, obtaining the command in chief, fought the bloody 

1812, Sept. 7. Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk 

on the Moskowa, in which both parties suffered enormous losses 
(French, 32,000 ; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were 
forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through 

Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants 
had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already 
shrunk to 95,000 men. 1 Napoleon in the Kremlin. 

Sept. 15-19. Burning of Moscow (Eostopschin). 

Sack of the city in the midst of ashes and ruins. Napoleon 
proffered a truce, which the Russians rejected by an answer 
whose delivery was purposely delayed. After remaining five 
weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his 

Oct. 19. Retreat from Moscow, 

at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards Smo- 
lensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army 
under Kutusoff, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Des- 
perate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, 
Oct. 24, and Vjazma, Nov. 3. 

ftTov. 6. Commencement of the cold weather. Terrible suffer- 
ing from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, espe- 
cially at Krasnoy (Ney, " the bravest of the brave "), and 
Borissoff. 

Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina. 

Ney and Oudinot, with 8,500 men, forced a passage against 
25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remain- 
ing fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat be- 
came a wild flight. Dec. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. 
Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived 
Dec. 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Rus- 
sians until Dec. 13, when the remaining troops (100,000), 
crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners 
according to their reports. 
In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 
able-bodied young men on the side of the French and their 
allies. 

Dec. 30. York concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian 
general Diebitch, in the mill of Poscherun near Tauroggen. 

1813 and 1814. The Great War of Liberation 
of the allies against Napoleon. 

1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William III. issued 
from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps, 
whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. 

Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish 
between Russia and Prussia : 
1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the auxil* 

* Cf. v Toll, DenJcwiirdigkeiten. 



476 Modern History. A. D. 

iary armies to be furnished by either side. 2. Restoration of 
the Prussian monarchy according to old political relations. 3. 
Invitation extended to Austria and England to join the alli- 
ance. 

1813, March 3. Treaty between England and Sweden : England 
paid one million rix dollars in subsidies and promised not to op- 
pose the union of Norway with Sweden. Sweden furnished 
the allies an army of 30,000 men under command of the crown 
prince Bernadotte (the inactive and suspicious conduct of this 
general afterwards entirely disabled the northern army). 

March 17. Appeal of Frederic William III. " To my people," 
and " to my army." Establishment of the Landwehr and 
the Landsturm. Iron Cross. 

March. Outbreak in Hamburg. Tettenborn occupied the city. The 
dukes of Mecklenburg withdrew from the confederacy of the 
Rhine. 
Great preparations on both sides. The Elbe was the boundary be- 
tween the combatants ; Danzig, Stettin, Kiistrin, Glogau, Modlin, and 

JZamosc, being, however, in the hands of the French. 

March 27. Occupation of Dresden by Russians and Prussians under 
Wittgenstein and Blucher, after the withdrawal of marshal Da- 
vout. Flight of the king of Saxony. 
The French army and the contingents of the confederacy of the 

Rhine concentrated in Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. 

Napoleon, after the end of April, was at the head of 180,000 men 

in Germany. He was unexpectedly attacked by the armies of the 

allies, numbering 85,000 men, and forced to fight the 

May 2. Battle of Gross-Gdrschen or Liitzen. 

Victory remained with the French, in spite of their losses. 
The allies withdrew through Dresden to Lusatia. Scharnhorst, 
severely wounded, died in Prague. 
Napoleon in Dresden, in close alliance with the king of Saxony, 
who had returned from Prague. 

1813, May 18. Landing of the crown prince Bernadotte with Swedish 
troops, in Pommerania. 

May 20 and 21. Battles of Bautzen and Wurschen. 

Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced them to retreat 
across the Spree, and completed the victory at Wurschen, with 
great loss to himself. Duroc f. The allies retreated to Si- 
lesia. 

May 30. Hamburg occupied by Davout, after the withdrawal of the 
Russians, and terribly maltreated. 
The combatants, exhausted, waited for reinforcements and strove 
to secure the alliance of Austria. 

June 4-July 26. Armistice of Poischwitz, afterwards prolonged 
until Aug. 10 (16). 

June 15. England concluded a subsidy treaty with Prussia and 
Russia at Reichenbach. 

July 5 (28)- Aug. 11. Congress at Prague. Austria played the 
part of mediator. After futile negotiations (JMetternich, Caw- 



A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 477 

laincourt, William von Humboldt), the congress was dissolved 
and 

1813, Aug. 12. Austria declared war upon France. 

The allies, supported by English subsidies, placed three 
main armies in the field : 

1. The great Bohemian army under Schwarzenberg 
(Kleist, Wittgenstein), with which were the three mon- 
archs, Alexander, Francis, Frederic William. 

2. The Silesian army under Bliicher (York, Saeken, 
Langeron). 

3. The Northern army under the crown prince of Swe- 
den, Bernadotte (Billow, Tauenzien, Winzing erode). 

Napoleon opened hostilities with an attack upon Bliicher who re- 
tired behind the Katzbach. Meanwhile Schwarzeriberg advanced 
against Dresden from Bohemia. Napoleon hastened thither, leaving 
Macdonald to oppose Bliicher. Before an action occurred at either of 
these points, Oudinot and Reynier, whose attack upon Berlin was to be 
supported by Davout from Hamburg, were defeated by Billow in the 
Aug. 23. Battle of Grosbeeren, 

while the crown prince of Saxony looked on inactive. 
This victory saved Berlin from capture and sack. Directly 

afterwards Macdonald's army was defeated in the 
Aug. 26. Battle of the Katzbach near Wahlstatt 

by Bliicher, a part being captured. Bliicher created Prince of 

Wahlstatt. 
Meanwhile the attack of the Bohemian army upon Dresden 

failed. Napoleon won his last great victory on German soil 

in the 

Aug. 26 and 27, Battle of Dresden. 

Moreau, on the side of the allies, was severely wounded by a 

cannon-ball, f Sept. 2. 
Aug. 27. Victorious engagement at Hagelberg. (Landwehr of the 

electoral mark.) Vandamme, in the attempt to intercept the 

retreat of the Bohemian army, was defeated in the 
Aug. 30. Battle at Kulm and Nollendorf 

near Teplitz, by Ostermann and Kleist, and captured with 

10,000 men. 
Ney, who was to occupy Berlin, was defeated in the 

Sept. 6. Battle of Dennewitz 

by Billow and Tauenzein. Austria having already arranged 
the preliminaries of an alliance with Russia and Prussia, dur- 
ing the armistice, a formal 

Sept. 9. Alliance was concluded at Teplitz : 

1. Firm union and mutual guarantee for their respective terri- 
tories. 2. Each party to assist the others with at least 60,000 
men. 3. No separate peace or armistice to be concluded. Secret 



478 Modern History. A. D. 

articles provided for the restoration of the Austrian and Prus- 
sian monarchies to the condition of 1805. 

1813, Sept. 17. Napoleon repulsed by Schwarzenberg at Nollendorf. 
York forced a passage across the Elbe for the army of Silesia 
by the 

Oct. 3. Battle of Wartenburg, 

against Bertrand. The northern army also crossed the Elbe. 

Oct. 8. Treaty of Ried between Austria and Bavaria, which with- 
drew from the confederacy of the Rhine and joined the alli- 
ance against Napoleon. In return the king of Bavaria was 
secured in all the possessions which he held at the date of the 
treaty. 
As the three main armies of the allies were attempting to unite in 
Napoleon's rear, the latter left Dresden in order to escape being cut 
off from France, and concentrated his troops at Leipzig. 

1813, Oct. 16, 18, 19. Battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of 

the Nations"). 
Oct. 16. On the first day : 

1. Indecisive battle between Napoleon and the army of Bo- 
hemia under Schwarzeriberg at Wachau (south of Leipzig). 

2. Victory of Bliicher at Mockera, north of Leipzig, over 
Marmont. 

Oct. 17. On the next day the main armies desisted from fighting. 
Napoleon sent offers of peace to Francis I. which were rejected 
on account of the extravagance of his demands. Toward even- 
ing union of the four armies of the allies : the grand army, 
the northern army, with which the army of Silesia had already 
united by an extraordinary march of Bliicher, and finally the 
Russian reserve (100,000) under Bennigsen. The armies of 
the allies, forming a large half circle, largely outnumbered 
the French. (300,000 men against 130,000). 
Oct. 18. On the third day general attack of the allies, ending, 
after nine hours' fighting, in a complete victory. (Struggle 
for Probstheide). In the evening the French army was driven 
back to the gates of Leipzig. The corps of Saxony and Wur- 
temberg went over to the allies. 
Oct. 19. Storm of Leipzig and capture of the king of Saxony. After 
suffering a loss of more than 30,000 men, the defeated army 
of Napoleon commenced the retreat. The destruction of the bridge 
over the Elster before the whole army had crossed caused the drown- 
ing of many troops in the Elster, among them prince Poniatowski, 
nephew of the last king of Poland. 

On the retreat engagement on the Unstrut between Napoleon and 
York's advanced guard, and at Hanau (Oct. 30, 31) with an Aus- 
tro-Bavarian army under Wrede. The French were victorious. 

Immediate consequences of the battle of Leipzig : flight of king 
Jerome from Cassel ; end of the kingdom of Westphalia, and of the 
grand duchies of Frankfort and Berg. Restoration of the old rulers 
in Cassel, Brunsioick, Hanover, Oldenburg. The central administra- 



A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 479 

tive bureau for Germany under baron von Stein, which had been 
created at the beginning of the war for the government of those dis- 
tricts which should be occupied by the troops of the allies, found its 
sphere of action limited almost entirely to Saxony. 

1813, Nov. Napoleon crossed the Rhine at Mainz. Wurtemberg, 
Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and the remaining members of the 

confederacy of the Rhine joined the allies. The cities occupied by 
the French fell into the hands of the allies one after another. Dres- 
den (Nov. 11), Stettin (Nov. 21), Lubeck (Dec. 5), Zamosc, Modlin, 
Torgau (Dec. 26), Danzig (Dec. 30), Wittenberg (Jan. 12, 1814, by 
Tauenzien), Kustrin (March 7). Glogau, Magdeburg, Hamburg (Da- 
vout), Erfurt, Wurzburg, Wesel, Mainz, maintained themselves until 
the peace. 

Uprising in Holland (Nov. 15), expulsion of the French officials. 
A part of the northern army under Biiloio entered Holland, while the 
crown prince of Sweden, with the main body of the northern army 
separated completely from the allies, invaded Holstein, in a short 
winter campaign forced Denmark to conclude the 

1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel : 1. Denmark renounced the posses- 
sion of Norway in favor of Sweden, which guaranteed to the 

Norwegians the possession of their liberties and rights. 2. Sweden 
ceded to Denmark western Pomerania and Riigen. At the same 
time peace between Denmark and England, the latter restoring all 
conquests except Heligoland • afterwards peace with Russia and Prus- 
sia. 

Meantime the French, after they had already (in 1812) lost the 
southern part of the country, and Madrid itself for a time, were 
driven almost entirely out of Spain in 1813. 

After the French power had been weakened by the departure of 
Soult with a large number of troops for Germany (Feb. 1813), Well- 
ington repulsed Soult's successor, Jourdan, and king Joseph, and 
defeated them in the 
1813, June 21. Battle of Vittoria. 

Joseph fled to France. Siege of Pampeluna by the Spaniards. 
Soult returning with reinforcements to the relief of Pampeluna was 
defeated in the Pyrenees (July 28, 29), and withdrew behind the 
Bidassoa. At the same time marshal Suchet was driven out of Val- 
encia into Barcelona. After the conquest of Pampeluna (Oct. 31) by 
the Spaniards, Wellington crossed the Bidassoa, defeated Soult on 
French soil, and compelled him to retreat to Bayonne. Napoleon en- 
deavored to secure peace with Spain by a treaty with the imprisoned 
king, Ferdinand (whom he liberated from his confinement at Valen- 
cay), and thus to protect France against invasion from the side of the 
Pyrenees, but the attempt was a failure. The Cortes did not ratify 
the treaty, on the ground that the king had not been a free agent, 
and that they were unwilling to conclude a peace which did not in- 
clude the English. 

1813. The allies on Nov. 8 laid before Napoleon a proposal which 

secured to France the Alps and Rhine for boundaries, but as 

Dec. 1. Napoleon did not earnestly entertain it. they adopted the 

resolution to prosecute the war vigorous! y and to pass the 



480 Modern History. A. d. 

Rhine. Napoleon obtained from the senate a new levy of 300,000 
men ; the corps legislatif in which words of blame were at last heard, 
was prorogued sine die. 

Passage of the allies across the Rhine. 

1813, Dec. 21-25. The main army under Schwarzenberg, Wrede, etc., 

crossed the upper Rhine and traversed Switzerland (Basle), 
whose treaty of neutrality with Napoleon was disregarded. 

1814, Jan. 1. Bliicher with the army of Silesia crossed the middle 

Rhine, at Mannheim, Caub, and Coblentz. 
The total strength of the allies on their entrance into French terri- 
tory was not quite 200,000 men. The main army advanced through 
Burgundy; Bliicher through Lorraine toward Champagne. To pre- 
vent their juncture, Napoleon attacked Bliicher at Brienne, and drove 
Jan. 29. him back ; Bliicher, however, united with a part of the 
main army (crown prince of Wiirtemberg) and defeated the em- 
peror in the 
Feb. 1. Battle of La Rothiere, 

and drove him across the Aube. The impossibility of pro- 
visioning the united armies, led to their separation. The grand army 
was to advance upon Paris by way of the Seine, while the army of 
Silesia followed the Marne toward the same goal. . 

No sooner did Napoleon hear of this separation than, with aston- 
ishing boldness, leaving a very small body of troops behind to engage 
the army under Schwarzenberg, he hurled himself suddenly upon the 
separate divisions of the army of Silesia, defeated them in four battles 
Feb. 10-15. at Champaubert (Sacken), Montmirail (York driven 
across the Marne), Chateau - Thierry, and Vauchamps, and 
forced Bliicher back to Etoges. Then, turning like a flash upon the 
main army, he defeated it in the 
Feb. 17. Engagement at Nangis (Wittgenstein and Wrede), 

and in the 
Feb. 18. Engagement at Montereau (crown prince of Wiirtem- 
berg). 
Napoleon thus obliged the main army to retreat to Troyes, after 
which the two armies were for a short time again united on the 
Aube. 

Meanwhile ambassadors of the allies had met the envoy of Na- 
poleon, Caulaincourt, in a 

Feb. 5-March 19. Congress at Chatillon (on the Seine), where 
Napoleon was offered the possession of France with the bound- 
aries of 1792, but the negotiations came to naught by reason 
of his haughty and dubious conduct. 
March 1. Closer union between the allied powers at Chaumont. 
The deposition of Napoleon resolved upon. 
The two armies separated again. The main army under 
Schwarzenberg defeated Oudinoi and Macdonald in the 
Feb. 27. Battle of Bar-sur-Aube. 

Bliicher reached Meaux, was forced to retire across the Marne 
and Oise, and joined the army of the north under Billow and 
Winzingerode. The united armies defeated Napoleon in the 



A. D. Napoleonic Wars, 481 

1814, March 9, 10. Battle of Laon. 

Napoleon now turned against the main army, which defeated 

him in the 
March 20, 21. Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. 

Meanwhile, Wellington had been driving back Soult with equal 
success. Occupation of Bordeaux (March 12), where the royal ban- 
ner of the Bourbons was first raised. 

Napoleon formed the desperate plan of throwing himself in the 
rear of the allies in Lorraine, summoning the garrisons of the for- 
tresses to his aid, and calling the entire population to arms. The 
allies, however, with equal boldness, advanced upon Paris, and de- 
feated the marshals Marmont and Mortier in the 
March 25. Battle of La Fere-Champenoise. 

Marmont and Mortier threw themselves into the capital. The 

regent, Maria Louisa, fled to Blois. After a brave defense and 

after the 
March 30. Storm of Montmartre 

they capitulated under condition of free departure, and left 

Paris to its fate. 

March 31. Entrance of the allies into Paris, 

where the senate, through the influence of Talleyrand, de- 
clared that Napoleon and his family had forfeited the throne. 

Napoleon, hastening to the relief of his capital, came a few hours 
too late. His marshals having refused to follow him in a foolhardy 
assault upon Paris, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son 
(April 6) at Fontainebleau, and, when this reservation was rejected, 
unconditionally (April 11). Napoleon made a futile attempt to poi- 
son himself. 1 

He received from the allies the island of Elba as a sovereign prin- 
cipality, and an annual income of two million francs to be paid by 
France. His wife received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- 
tella with sovereign power ; both retained the imperial title. 
1814. Wellington defeated Soult in the 
April 10. Battle of Toulouse. 
May 4. Arrival of Napoleon at Elba. 

Return of the Bourbons. Louis XVI.'s brother, the count oj 
Provence, first appointed his younger brother, the count of Artois as 
viceregent (lieutenant du royaume), and then returned to France, as 

1814-1824. Louis XVIII. 

where he promulgated a constitution which was an imitation of 
the English constitution, but with many limitations. (Charte octro- 
yee : chamber of peers and chamber of deputies without the initiative.) 
He concluded with the allies the 
May 30. (First) Peace of Paris. 

1. France retained, in the main, the boundaries of 1792, which 
embraced 3,280 square miles more than those of 1790 : Avignon, the 

1 According to Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de VEmpire, vol. xviii., the 
truth of this attempted suicide is very doubtful. Cf. V. Helfert, Nap. L 
Fahrt von Fontainebleau nach Elba, 1S7-1. 
31 



482 Modern History. A. D. 

Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. 
France recognized the independence of the States of the Netherlands, 
according to their future enlargement, as well as of all German and 
Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French 
colonies excepting Tobago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England 
retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might 
have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised Eng- 
land to abolish the slave trade. 

After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of 
Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand 
VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra-liberal constitu- 
tion proposed by the cortes of 1812, was followed by the immediate out- 
break of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. 

Visit of Alexander and Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 
1814), accompanied by their victorious generals (Bliicher) ; enthusiastic 
reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and 
regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, 
after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the French empire, 
the 

1814, Sept-1815, June. Congress of Vienna 

was assembled. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings 
of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg, and a great number 
of German princes were present in person. 

Chief negotiators : Austria, Metternich ; Prussia, Hardenberg and 
W. v. Humboldt ; Russia, Nesselrode and Rasoumoffsky ; Great Brit- 
ain, Wellington and Castlereagh ; France, Talleyrand and Dalberg. 
(Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.) 

The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and which, 
to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the order 
of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande- Bretagne, Prusse, 
Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence after- 
wards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special 
cases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eight 
powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the Saxon 
and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to war 
(Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after 
Napoleon's return from Elba (p. 483), signed the 

Act of the Congress of Vienna. 
Principal articles : 
1. Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies : a. 
Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, 
which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Campo 
Formio (these were now called the Lombar do-Venetian king- 
dom), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and Dal- 
matia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Galicia. b. Prus- 
sia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw (Posen) 
with Danzig ; Swedish hither Pomerania with Riigen in re- 
turn for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark ; its old 
possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as Neu- 



A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 483 

chdtel and the grand duchy of the lower Rhine, and the greater 
part of Saxony as an indemnification for the loss of some 
former possessions, as Ansbach and Baireuth ceded to Bavaria, 
East Friesland to Hanover, the Polish possessions to Russia. 

2. Formation of a kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising the 

former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the 
former hereditary statthalter as King William I. 

3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old 

empire, comprising 39 (at its dissolution in 1866 only 34) sover- 
eign states, including the four free cities ; all other princes 
who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. 
Act of confederation signed June 8, 1815, supplemented by 
the final act of Vienna, May 15, 1820. 

4. Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as 

the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state un- 
der the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 

5. England retained Malta, Heligoland, a portion of the French and 

Dutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the 
Seven Ionian Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, 
which was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See 
p. 482. These islands were given to Greece by the treaties 
of Nov. 14, 1863-Nov. 29, 1864. See p. 505). 

6. Sweden retained Nonvay, which had been ceded to her at the 

peace of Kiel (p. 479), with a constitution of its own ; Den- 
mark was indemnified with Lauenburg. 

7. The nineteen cantons of Switzerland were increased to twenty- 

two by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchdtel (at once 
canton and a, principality}. 

8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which re- 

ceived Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The 
Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Mural 
had secured possession of that state for the present by his de- 
sertion of Napoleon. 
News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bour- 
bons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, as 
well as the invitations of his adherents, encouraged the deposed em- 
peror to return to France. 

1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes 

March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops 
sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. 

March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon 
by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, 
France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. 
King Louis X VIII. fled to Ghent. 

March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred 

Days, March 20 to June 29, 1815. 
Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new 
March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each 

power engaged to furnish an army of 180,000 men. All Eu- 



484 Modern History, A. d. 

ropean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all 
the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing 
with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. 
The sum of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to 
over a million men. 

May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent con- 
cessions to the liberal party in France. Champ de Mai : 
Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under 
Bliicher and an English-German under Wellington, against Napo- 
leon. 

Murat, who had declared for Napoleon, defeated by the Austrians 
at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to 
France. Reinstallation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. 
June 14. Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement 

at Charleroi • the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen 
forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Bliicher in the 
June 16. Battle of Ligny, 

after a brave resistance {Bliicher in personal danger), and drove 
him back. Bliicher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the 
prince of Orange in the 
June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. 

The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the 
army of Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and 
troops from Brunswick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled 
himself with superior numbers. 
1815) June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, 

called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jean. 
Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the juncture of 
the Prussians under Bliicher with the English under Wellington, by 
directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's 
army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was 
only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Bliicher. Complete 
defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely 
scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, 
was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some 
unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army. 1 
June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of his son. 
July 1. Arrival of the allies before Paris. 
July 7. Second capture of Paris. 

Entrance of Bliicher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. 

Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. 
Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts 
to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral 
Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to Eng- 
land. Thence, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported 
as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October (f May 
5, 1821). 

1 Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de V Empire, xx.; Hopes, Who Lost Wa« 
Urloo ? — Atlantic Monthly, June. 1881. 



a. d. Napoleonic Wars. — Modern Inventions. 485 

Sept. 26. foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of 
Alexander, comprising at first Russia, Austria, Prussia, theo- 
retically an intimate union on a basis of morality and religion, but 
practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of 
absolute monarchy. 

Ney made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed 
on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne 
by landing in Calabria ; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot 
Oct. 13, 1815. 

Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 

1. France surrendered the four fortresses Philippeville, Ma- 
rienburg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis 
(and Saarbrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the 
German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lau- 
ter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which 
she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore 
brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead 
of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 

2. Demolition of Hiiningens, a fortress below Basle. 

3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were 
to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies 
at the expense of France. 

4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides 
this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various 
cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the 
first peace, were now reclaimed. 

The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient 
appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strasburg, should 
be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of at- 
tack against Germany, was not gratified. (Seej). 526.) 

FOURTH PERIOD. 

FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY- 
1815-x. 

§1. INVENTIONS. 

The universal adoption and application of four in- 
ventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in 
comparison with whose influence upon the transformation of the 
world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, 
almost disappears, lends the modern world its peculiar character. 
[A century of material, intellectual, social development of the 
people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovern- 
ment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth 
century, p. 279.)] 

1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion 
were made in the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer- 



486 Modern History. A. d. 

tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, 
or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention 
to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of 
Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the 
first steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set 
up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by 
Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to 
improve the steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possi- 
ble to use these machines in the most various industries, was James 
'Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 

2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is 
disputed between the French, English, and Americans. The French 
ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count 
of Auxiron, and in 1775 Perier, are said to have sailed the first little 
steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the 
marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Doubs, and in 1780 on the Saone 
at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the inven- 
tion is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester ; it would seem, however, 
that the first steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Sym- 
ington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with 
small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, 
belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. 
This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an 
experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first 
consul, Napoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French 
ships of war (1803). 

3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the 
second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used 
in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of 
a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were 
covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast 
iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an 
easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to rail- 
roads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithich. Gradual im- 
provement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George 
Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an im- 
proved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad 
for passenger traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. The 
first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and 
Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Furth to Nuremberg (1835), 
at first a horse railroad ; the first larger line worked by locomotives 
was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad 
in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass. ; cars drawn by horses. 
First roads to use locomotives : South Carolina, Baltimore tip Ohio, 
1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an 
iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construc- 
tion of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused 
(especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other in- 
dustries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock specula- 
tion.] 

4. The first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sommering, 



A. r>. Continental Europe. 487 

a German, in Munich. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., 
who dismissed it as a " German notion." After the Dane, Orsted. 
had discovered electro-magnetism in 1819, the Frenchmen Ampere and 
Ritschie conceived the idea of applying the new discovery to the tele- 
graph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually con- 
structed and used was set up in Gottingen by Gauss and Weber in 
1833. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented 
in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schilling's invention was carried 
to England by Cooke, an Englishman. There it was improved by 
Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practically 
worked hi London, between Euston Square and Camden Town. After 
the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Ger- 
many and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of 
Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The 
first submarine telegraph was laid in 1851 between England and 
France (Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid 
from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and in many 
other locations. The gigantic undertaking of connecting Europe and 
America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was 
crowned with success, but only for a time. In 1866 the undertaking 
was again renewed and brought to a successful close. ( Valencia in 
Ireland to Newfoundland, 1,650 English miles.) Since that time, 
many others have been laid. In 1902 a Pacific cable was laid. 

§ 2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.* 

1817-1832. 

1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. 
Festival of the Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolut- 
ist writings (Ancillon, Schmalz, Holler, etc.). 

1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, 
at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu, 
to withdraw the army of occupation from France. 

1819. " Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer 
and Russian counselor, Kotzebue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic 
Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German stu- 
dents {Burschenschaft). Reaction in Prussia. W. v. Humboldt, 
Beyme, Boy en, withdrew from the service of the state. 

Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternich. 
Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re- 
solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna, 
where the 

1820. May. Final Act of Vienna was signed. 

In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended 
constitution of 1812, which was restored. 
Oct. Congress at Troppau, 

1821. Congress at Laybach, 
assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in 
Naples and Piedmont. 

1821. Victorious campaign of the Austrians against the Liberals in 

3 For France see p. 526. 



488 Modern History. A. d. 

Naples (Pepe, Caracosa) and Sardinia (Santa Rosa, battle of 
Novara). In both countries absolutism in its severest form 
was restored. 

1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian 
disturbances. 

1823. French intervention in Spain under the lead of the duke of 
Angouleme. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to 
capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand VII., who had been 
detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous execu- 
tions (Riego). 

1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies 

in Central America and South America into independent 

states. 

Colombia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, 

in 1830, into three republics : New Granada (now Colombia in the 

narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; 

La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name 

of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. 

(Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long 

governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 

1821 by Iturbide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to 

abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823 ; Iturbide 

returned, but was executed 1824. 

Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 
1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel, 
the younger son of king John VI. (f 1826), after a long civil 
war and unheard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder 
brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don 
Pedro (f 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in 
1826 to his daughter, Donna Maria ; in 1831 he delegated 
the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II. 

1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. 

Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at 
the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (March- 
June, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was de- 
tained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea 
(Mainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople, etc. ; terrible barbarities in Chios, which had 
revolted ; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of 
the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Byron 
(f Apr. 24, 1824), Eynard from Geneva. William Muller the Ger- 
man poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and 
America (Dr. Howe)~\. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 
1824-1830- Charles X., king of France (p. 527). 

1825-1855- Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder 
brother Constantine having renounced the crown. 

1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea. 
England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, 
who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves. 



A. d. Continental Europe, 489 

1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mah- 
mud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely abolished. 

1827. Battle of Navarino. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by 
Oct. 20. the English, French, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), 

and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 
1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War. 

The Russian general, Diebitch, crossed the Balkans (whence 
his surname, Sabalkanski), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and 
Erzeroum were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 
1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Erivanski. 

1829. Peace of Adrianople. 

Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter 
power recognizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Conference 
which announced in 1830 the independence of Greece. 

Provisional administration of the count Capo d'Istria as president, 
who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), the seat 
of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised 
to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince, 
1832-1862. Otto I., f 1867. 

1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527). 

1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris. 

Abdication of Charles X. ; accession of 
1830-1848. Louis Philippe I. 

For the details see p. 529. This revolution was followed by 
liberal uprisings throughout Europe. 

1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king 
of England. Whig ministry. 

1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause : 

The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of 
Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly differ- 
ent elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was 
of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing 
country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and 
Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture. The suc- 
cess of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering 
dissatisfaction in Brussels. 
1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the 

" Masaniello." The mediation of prince William of Orange, 
the eldest son of king William I., failed of success. Prince Frederic, 
the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a 
division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of 
Sept. 26-27. On 
Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. 

Provisional government. 
The London Conference between the great powers procured a cessa- 
tion of hostilities between Holland and Belgium and recognized the 
new state (Jan., 1831), which in February adopted a liberal monarch- 



490 Modern History, A. D. 

ical constitution. After Louis Philippe had declined the honor for his 
second son, the duke of Nemours, upon whom the first choice fell, 
1831-1865. Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king of the 
Belgians. [A man of ability and excellent disposition, he ap- 
proved himself an admirable constitutional monarch.] The war with 
Holland lasted until 1833. Peace was established in 1839. 

Results of the July Revolution : Revolutionary movements in 
Germany (in Saxony and Hesse-Cassel, alteration of the constitutions). 
In Brunswick duke Charles (f 1873) was expelled ; duke William 
taking his place, in accordance with a decree of the diet of the con- 
federacy. Democratic transformation in many of the Swiss cantons. 

1830-1832. Revolution in Poland. 

1830, Nov. 29. Revolt in Warsaw. The attempted assassination of 

the grand duke Constantine foiled. Provisional government : 
Lubecki (pron. Lubetski), Czartoryski (pron. Tshar — ), Chlopicki 
(Klopitzki), regarded with suspicion by the democrats (Lelewel). 
General Chlopicki dictator until Jan., 1831, then prince Radzivil com- 
mander-in-chief. The emperor Nicholas deposed by the diet Jan., 

1831. Prince Czartoryski president. The Russians advanced under 
Diebitch. Bloody engagement at G-rochow (Feb. 19-25, 1831), 
where the Poles with 45,000 men offered long and victorious resis- 
tance to the superior force of the Russians (70,000 men with more 
than twice as many cannon as the Poles possessed), but were at last 
forced back upon Prague. Skrzynecki commander-in-chief ; defeat of 
the Russians at Waivar and Dembe Wielski ; the insurrection spread 
through Lithuania and Podolia. Diebitch defeated the Poles in the 
bloody 

1831, May 26. Battle of Ostrolenka. Diebitch f June 10. Want 

of harmony among the Poles. Massacres by the Polish demo- 
crats in Warsaw. Czartoryski escaped and was replaced by the in- 
efficient Krukowiecki. The new Russian general Paskevitch 
crossed the Vistula, captured Warsaio (Sept. 6 and 7, 1831). The 
Polish insurrection suppressed. The Organic Statute of Feb. 26, 

1832, deprived Poland of its constitution and reduced it to a province 
of the Russian empire, although with a separate administration. 
1831. Uprisings in Modena, Parma, and Romagna, quickly sup- 
pressed with the assistance of the Austrians. 

1833-1840. After the death of Ferdinand VII., civil war in Spain. 
Led by Espartero, the constitutional party, which supported the 
claims of Isabella II., the minor daughter of the king, and her mother 
Maria Christina, after a bloody contest, defeated the absolutist 
party (Don Carlos, brother of the king, f 1855 in exile ; leaders of 
the Carlists : Zumalacarregui, f 1835, Cabrera, Gomez). Espartero 
overthrown in 1843. Banishment of the queen dowager, Christina. 

1833, The Frankfort uprising, wherein two watches were over- 
powered for a few hours, caused a vigorous reactionary 

movement throughout Germany. Frankfort received an Austro- 
Prussian garrison. Establishment of commissions for political inves- 
tigations, arrests and condemnations. Meeting of the sovereigns of 



A. D. Continental Europe. 491 

Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Miinchengratz ; ministerial conference 
in Teplitz (1833) and Vienna (1834), by whose resolutions the rights 
of the estates in Germany were still further curtailed. 
1833. Foundation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) 
(Maassen, Prussian minister of finance), which had been zeal- 
ously advocated by Prussia since 1818. In 1830 the union already 
included a population of 25,000,000 and a territory of 80,600 square 
miles. After 1854 it embraced 98,000 square miles and 35,000,000 
inhabitants. 

1835-1848. Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria. 

The chancellor of state, Metternich, was still the actual head 
of the government and the soul of the conservative reactionary policy 
throughout Europe. Censorship of the press. Strict system of pass- 
ports. Police surveillance. 
1837. Upon the death of William IV. of England, Hanover, where 

the saiic law 1 regulated the descent of the throne, became 

separated from England. 
Partial repeal of the fundamental statute of 1833 by the king of 
Hanover, Ernst August, under the pretext that the constitution had 
been adopted without his consent, he being at the time heir to the 
throne. The true reason was probably that the constitution had 
made the domains public property and had established a civil list. 
Dismissal of seven professors at Gbttingen {Jacob and William Grimm, 
Dahlmann, Gervinus, Ewald, Albrecht and Weber), for refusal to take 
the oath of homage. 

1837-1901- Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. 

1837. Arrest of the archbishop of Cologne (Droste von Vischering), 
in consequence of a quarrel with the Prussian government 
about marriages between persons of different religious beliefs. 

1840. Death of Frederic William III. of Prussia. His son and suc- 

June 7. cessor 

1840-1861. Frederic William IV. (see p. 515). 

Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in a previous victorious war 
(1831-1833) with his over-lord the sultan, threatened Constantinople. 
He was, however, compelled by the European powers to make peace, 
and obliged to be content with the investiture of Syria as a fief from 
the sultan. The attempt of the Porte (1839) to deprive him of Syria, 
failed. Ibrahim, son of Mehemed Ali, defeated the Turks at Nisib on 
the Euphrates. Through treachery the Turkish fleet fell into the 
hands of the viceroy of Egypt. Relying on the support of France, 
Mehemed Ali demanded from the young sultan Abdul- Medjid (1839- 
1861) the hereditary investiture of all lands under his government. 
To oppose these demands, England (lord Palmerston), Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia, concluded in 1840 a treaty of alliance, to the ex- 
elusion of France, which for a moment threatened the peace of Eu- 
rope. After the fall of the ministry of Thiers, however, and after 

i Cf. p. 255, note. 



492 Modern History. A. D. 

Guizot became president of the ministry in October, Prance sub- 
mitted and deserted the viceroy of Egypt. The armed intervention 
of England and Austria in Syria forced the viceroy to take a lower 
tone, and he retained only the hereditary rule over Egypt under the 
over-lordship of the Porte. 

1846. Death of Pope Gregory XVI. Attempted reforms of his suc- 
cessor Pius IX. (Mastai-Ferretti). 

1847. Convention of the united legislature (Landtag) in Prussia. 
War of the Sonderbund (separate confederacy) in Switzerland, 

against seven Catholic cantons (Jesuits). General Dufour quickly 
overpowered Freiburg and Luzerne. Dissolution of the Sonderbund. 

Transformation of the Swiss confederacy from a close alliance 
[Staatenbund] of sovereign cantons into & federal nation [Bundesstaat]. 
The former diet, in which Zurich, Berne, and Luzerne had in turn been 
the chief town, was now succeeded by a confederate council which 
sat in Berne and consisted of 1. a council of estates (representation 
of the governments of the separate cantons), 2. a national council 
(representation of the whole Swiss people according to the density 
of the population). A common system of coinage ; centralized postal 
service and military organization. 

1848. Feb. 24. February Revolution in Paris* (p. 530). 

1848-1851 (1852). France, for the second time, a republic. 

In Switzerland, complete victory of the radicals. The can- 
ton of Neuchatel threw off allegiance to its prince, the king of 
Prussia. 

1848. Revolutionary movements in Germany, in consequence 
of the French revolution. 

Feb. 27. Popular assembly at Mannheim under the lead of Itzlein, 
which demanded a German parliament, jury trials, free press, 
right of forming organizations, societies, etc. 

March 11. The elector of Hesse obliged to agree to these demands, 

March 13-15. Outbreak in Vienna. Metternich driven from the 
city, which fell into the hands of the burgher-guard and the 
students. 

March 18. Conflicts in the streets of Berlin. The troops, tired but 

not conquered, left the city by order of the king (March 19- 

20). Formation of a poorly disciplined burgher-guard. Lib- 

\ eral ministers frequently changed. Anarchy in the capital. 

Call of a constituent assembly at Berlin. 

March 20. After disturbances had occurred in Munich as early as 
March 6, Louis I. (f 1868) abdicated in favor of his son 
Maximilian II. Disturbances in Saxony, Hanover, Nassau, 
Mecklenburg, etc. 

March 31. Preliminary parliament in Frankfort opened under the 
presidency of Mittermaier. Four sessions. Resolve adopted 
to call a national German constituent assembly, for the purpose 
of making a constitution for the German empire. 

April. A republican rising in Baden (Hecker, Struve), supported by 
the arrival of refugees (Herwegh) and foreign republicans 
quickly suppressed by the troops of the German confederation. 



A., d. Continental Europe. 493 

General Frederic von Gagern treacherously shot by the volun- 
teers (April 20). 

May 15. Second insurrection in Vienna, which compelled the con- 
vocation of a constituent diet. The emperor left Vienna and 
went to Innsbruck. The intended dissolution of the legion of 
students caused a 

May 26. Third insurrection in Vienna, after which the troops left 
the city and a committee of public safety (citizens and students) 
controlled the city. 

1848-1849. G-erman National Assembly (Parliament) 

May 18. in Frankfort (Church of St. Paul) for the purpose of " har- 
monizing" a constitution for the German empire with the 
governments of the various states. 

The national assembly elected archduke John of Austria (66 years 
old) administrator of the empire. He entered Frankfort June 11. The 
confederate council (Bundestag) dissolved itself. First imperial 
ministry (afterwards made more complete): Schmerling (Austria), 
foreign affairs, and interior; Peucker (Prussia), war; Heckscher (Ham- 
burg), justice. It was soon evident, however, that the newly cre- 
ated central power had no real authority either as regarded foreign 
countries or the separate states. 

President of the national assembly, Heinrich von Gagern. Par- 
ties: right (Radowitz, Vincke, prince Lichnowsky), holding to the idea 
of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate governments; 
left ( Vogt, Ruge, Robert Blum), proclaiming the principle of the sov- 
ereignty of the people, and endeavoring to establish a republican 
confederation (Bundestaat) by revolutionary means; right centre 
(Gagern, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Arndt, Beseler, Bassermann, J. Grimm), 
which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the estab- 
lishment of a constitutional monarchy for Germany ; left centra 
(Romer, Fallmerayer, Raveaux, etc.), which insisted upon the uncon- 
ditional subordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to 
be created on the basis of the sovereignty of the people ; it recom- 
mended, however, that the views of the separate governments and 
such particular requirements of the states as were well founded 
should be respected. 

1848. In Naples grant of a liberal constitution, followed by a reac- 
Feb. tion after the victory of the Swiss troops in the conflicts in the 
streets (May). War with Sicily, which was in revolt, but was 
subdued by Filangieri with great severity. After the murder of his 
minister, Rossi, Pius IX. fled to Gaeta (Nov.). Rule of the anarchists 
and republicans (Mazzini) in Rome. After a two months' siege Rome 
was captured by the French (July, 1849), and the papal authority 
was restored. The Pope did not return to Rome, however, until 
1850. (French garrison in Rome, 1849-1866.) 
1848. Slavonic congress in Prague, 

June 2. called by the Czechs (Palacki), in order to unite the oppo- 
sition of the Slavonic people of Austria against the growth of 
German culture and influence. In order that the representatives 
9f the different Slavonic nationalities might understand one another, 



494 Modern History. A. d. 

the proceedings of this anti-German congress were held in German. 

June 12-17. Uprising of the Czechs in Prague suppressed by Win- 
dischgratz. 

Oct. 31. Capture of Vienna by imperial troops ( Windischgratz, Jella- 
chich). Robert Blum (member of the parliament of Frankfort), 
Messenhauser (commander of the city), and many others were 
shot. 

Nov. 1. Commencement of the reaction in Prussia. Ministry 
Brandenburg - Manteuffel. General Wrangel entered Berlin 
without resistance (Nov. 10). Proclamation of a state of siege. 
The burgher-guard disarmed. 

Nov. 27. Transference of the national assembly to Brandenburg. 
As a quorum failed to meet there, 

Dec. 5. Dissolution of the national assembly and imposition of a 
constitution with two chambers, the second elected by uni- 
versal (manhood) and equal suffrage. 

Dec. 10. Prince Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
Republic (p. 531). 

1848-1849. War between Austria and Sardinia. 

The Austrians, driven from Milan by a revolt (March, 1848), 
retired to Verona. An Italian attack at St. Lucia repulsed. Ra- 
detzki, reinforced by Nugent (engagements at Udine and Belluno), 
advanced again. The troops of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 
victorious at Goito (May), were completely defeated by Radetzki at 
July 25. Custozza. Milan recaptured by the Austrians. Truce 

from Aug. 9, 1848, to March 20, 1849. Radetzki, by the vic- 
tory of Mortara (March 21) and Novara (March 23), compelled the 
conclusion of peace. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, 
Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Portugal (f July, 1849). 

Capture of Brescia after terrible fighting in the streets. Cruelties 
exercised upon prisoners (Haynau). In Venice, after the withdrawal 
of the Austrian garrison (March, 1848), & provisional government in 
the name of the king of Sardinia was succeeded, after the defeat of 
the Italian army, by a republic (president Manin). Siege and cap- 
ture of Venice by the Austrians (Aug. 1849). The whole of the 
Lombardo- Venetian kingdom subjected anew to Austria. 

1848-1849. Uprising of the Hungarians (Magyars). 

The Hungarians demanded and received a separate ministry 
(April, 1848). Count Batthyanyi, president of the ministry; Kossuth 
(pr. Koshut), minister of finance. Diet in Pesth under the presidency 
of the archduke Stephen as palatine. The opposition of the Slavonic 
population and the appanages of the crown of Hungary {Croatia, 
Transylvania) to the supremacy of the Magyars, and their demand 
for political equality, were supported by the court of Vienna. Jella- 
chich appointed Ban of Croatia. Kossuth procured from the diet a 
levy of national troops (Honveds), and the issue of Hungarian paper 
money. Jellachich invaded Hungary, but was defeated at Velencze. 
The archduke palatine Stephen resigned his office. Count Lamberg, 
created imperial governor of Hungary, murdered at Pesth (Sept.). 
The emperor dissolved the diet. 



A. D. Continental Europe. 495 

After the abdication of Ferdinand I. (f 1875) his nephew mounted 
the throne as 

1848 — X. Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria. 

The Hungarian diet refused to recognize the abdication of 
Ferdinand I. and the accession of Francis Joseph I. Prince Win- 
dischgratz led an Austrian army into Hungary. Kossuth and the 
Magyar officials retired to Debreczin. Windischgratz occupied Pesth 
(Jan., 1849). The Polish general Bern, to whom Kossuth had given 
a command, defeated the Austrians in a series of engagements. 
Other troops, under the Pole DembinsJci and the Magyar princes 
Gorgey and KlapJca, were successful against the Austrians. DembinsJci 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Magyar forces, but was de- 
feated at Kapolna (Feb. 26, 1849) and resigned his command. 
Meanwhile a bloody struggle was in progress in Transylvania: Bern, 
defeated by the Austrian general Puchner at Hermanstadt (Feb., 
1849), after having received reinforcements, took the offensive against 
the Austrians and Russians, whom the former had called to their aid, 
with success ; driving the Russians out of Transylvania. In the west, 
too, fortune smiled upon the Hungarian arms. Gorgey relieved Ko- 
niorn. Windischgratz was driven back to Pesth, which his successor, 
Welden, was compelled to evacuate ; an Austrian garrison remained 
in Ofen. In consequence of the 

1849. Publication of the general constitution for Austria, 
March 4. which abolished the ancient Hungarian constitution, the 

diet, upon Kossuth's motion, pronounced the deposition of the 
house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Kossuth placed at the head of the Mag- 
yar government with the title of governor. Divisions and lack of de- 
cision among the Hungarians. Instead of marching upon Vienna 
they laid siege to Ofen, which Gorgey captured May 21. Kossuth and 
the diet made a pompous entrance into Pesth. Meanwhile at a meet- 
ing of the emperors of Austria and Russia, Russian intervention 
was agreed upou, and a common plan of operations adopted for the 
subjugation of Hungary. 

Last decisive struggle of the Hungarians. Bern defeated at Her- 
mannstadt in Transylvania by the Russians (Liiders), who outnum- 
bered him three to one. DembinsJci forced to retire before the su- 
perior Russian force under PasJcevitch. Gorgey tried in vain to break 
through the main Austrian army under Haynau, was defeated at 
Zsigard and Komorn, went to the aid of DembinsJci, defeated the Rus- 
sians under Rildiger at Waitzen, but was obliged to retire to the 
mountains upon the approach of PasJcevitch, escaping the Russians 
only by a masterly retreat. Kossuth fled with the diet to Szegedin, 
whither Haynau marched. DembinsJci, attacking him, was defeated at 
SzoreJc (Aug. 5), and at Temesvar (Aug. 9), where his army was 
almost entirely scattered. Confusion and discord among the Hun- 
garians. Kossuth laid down the chief power ; the dictatorship was 
conferred upon Gorgey. Two days later Gorgey concluded the 
1849, Aug. 13. Capitulation of Vilagos, 

in which about 25,000 men laid down their arms (120 cannon 
surrendered) before the Russian general Riidiger. Most of the other . 



496 Modern History. A. D. 

corps surrendered unconditionally ; Klapka alone, who defended Ko- 
morn, made an honorable capitulation. Kossuth, Bern, Dembinski, 
found refuge in Turkish territory. Haynau administered terrible 
punishment to the captured leaders of the insurrection. Numerous 
executions (count Batthyanyi hanged), imprisonments and confisca- 
tions. Abolition of the Hungarian constitution. Transylvania and 
Croatia separated from Hungary. Abolition of the general constitution 
of Austria, Dec. 31, 1851. 

1848-1851. Three wars of Schleswig-Holstein against 
Denmark. 
Cause: " Open letter" of the king, Christian VIII. (July 8, 1846), 
which arbitrarily decreed the continuance of the union of the duchies 
with Denmark, in spite of the different laws of inheritance in the two 
states. A revolutionary movement in Copenhagen (Casino party) 
compelled king Frederic VII. to pronounce the annexation of 
Schleswig to Denmark (1848"). Hence insurrection in the duchies 
(March, 1848), and formation of a provisional government of the coun- 
try (Beseler). 

1848, First War. Prussian troops and those of the German con- 
April-Aug. federacy came to the assistance of the duchies, which 

were obliged to form a new army. General Wrangel defeated 
the Danes at Schlesioig (April 23) and advanced to Jutland. The 
losses to commerce in the Baltic by the Danish blockade and the in- 
fluence of England and Russia produced the not very honorable truce 
of Malmo (26 Aug. 1848-26 March, 1849). Establishment of " com- 
mon government " for the duchies. 

Dissatisfaction with the truce throughout Germany. Angry de- 
bates in the national assembly at Frankfort ; contest in the streets 
with the populace, who were excited by the democrats. Murder of 
prince Lichnowsky and general von Auerswald (Sept.). 

1849, March-July. Second War. Creation of a governorship (Bese- 

ler, Reventlow-Preetz) by the central government of Germany. 
At Eckernforde the ship of the line Christian VIII. was fired by can- 
nonade and the frigate Gejion captured (April 5). Storm of the re- 
doubts of Diippel by Bavarian and Saxon troops (April 13). The 
Prussian general Bonin, at the head of the Schleswig-Holstein army, 
defeated the Danes at Kolding (April 20). In consequence of the 
threatening attitude of England, France, and Russia, indifferent con- 
duct of Prussia and other German troops in the war (general Pritt- 
witz). Siege of Fredericia by the Schleswig-Holstein army, which, 
however, suffered a considerable loss through a successful sortie of 
the Danes. Truce of Berlin, between Prussia and Denmark (1849, 
July 10), whereby Schleswig was to be occupied by Swedish troops in 
the north, in the south by Prussian troops, and received a new adminis- 
tration. The truce was converted into a peace (in the name of the Ger- 
man confederation as well). Bonin and all Prussian officers were 
recalled from the Schleswig-Holstein army. 

1850, Jan.-1851, July. Third War, conducted by Schlesivig-Holstein- 

ers alone without the aid of Germany. General Willisen, for- 
merly in the Prussian service, assumed command of the army. He 



A. D. Continental Europe. 497 

was defeated at Idstedt (July 24, 25). Schleswig occupied by the 
Danes. In the engagement at Missunde (Sept. 1%) the Schleswig- 
Holstein troops were again defeated. In the storm of Friedrichstadt 
(Oct. 4) they were repulsed with great loss. The chief command 
was transferred from Willisen to general Horst. The German con- 
federacy having been restored meanwhile (p. 498) enforced under 
Austrian influence the cessation of hostilities ; Holstein was occupied 
by Austrian troops with the consent of Prussia, and delivered to the 
Danes upon the vague promise of " respecting the rights of the 
duchies " (1852). 

1849. Completion of the constitution of the German 
Empire. 

Diet, composed of a chamber of state, appointed half by the govern- 
ments, half by the popular representatives of the separate states, and 
& popular chamber. Monarchical power with only a suspensive veto. 
Formation of two parties, the great German (Grossdeutsche) party, 
which wished to retain the German territory of Austria in Germany, 
and the small German (Kleindeutsche), which wished to exclude Aus- 
tria and form a narrower confederacy under the hegemony of Prussia. 
1849. The offer of the crown of emperor of the Germans, by a 
April 3. deputation of the national assembly at Frankfort, was de- 
clined by the king. Frederic William declared that he could 
assume the imperial dignity only with the consent of all German gov- 
ernments. 

May. Uprising in Dresden (Tzschirner, Heubner, Todt, Bakuniri) 
suppressed by Prussian assistance. 
Recall and withdrawal of a great number of representatives 

1849. from the national assembly at Frankfort. The Rump-Par- 
June. liament (president Lowe-Kalbe) in Stuttgart dissolved. 

The administrator superseded by a central power to be executed 
by Austria and Prussia alternately, "for the German confederacy" 
(The interim). Death of the administrator, Oct. 20, 1849. 
May. Republican uprising in the county palatine and in the grand 
duchy of Baden (Struve, Mieroslawski) ; defection of the army. 
Prussian troops under the prince of Prussia entered Baden, de- 
feated the insurgents at Waghausel, besieged and captured 
Rastadt. 
The commander Tiedemann and others were shot ; many, among 
them the poet Kinkel, condemned to imprisonment for life with hard 
labor (Kinkel, 1850, in Spandau, was rescued by Karl Schurz). 

1850, Feb. 6. In Prussia the king and legislature took the oath of 

allegiance to the revised constitution. 
Exertions of Prussia to create a German federal state (Bundesstaat), 
with exclusion of Austria (Radowitz), actively supported by the old 
party of the hereditary empire in the Frankfort parliament, the 
Gothas (so called from a meeting in Gotha). The "alliance of the 
three kings " (Prussia, Hanover, Saxony), concluded May 26, 1849, 
which was immediately joined by most of the smaller German states, 
was soon broken up by the withdrawal of Hanover and Saxonye 
Nevertheless the 



498 Modern History. A. D. 

1850, March 20. Parliament of Erfurt was opened, which on the 

27th April concluded the discussion of a new German Union. 
May 9-16. Congress of princes in Berlin, wherein the dislike of 

electoral Hesse (Hassenpjlug) for the union came to light. 

Creation of a college of princes. Austria opposed the efforts 

of Prussia by the 
Sept. 2. Reopening of the Frankfort parliament. 

Contest over the constitution in the electorate of Hesse. Re- 
peated dissolution of the assembly of the estates by Hassenpjlug. The 
whole country was pronounced in a state of war (Sept. 7). Resist- 
ance of the officials and the courts. The prince elector left the coun- 
try and invited the intervention of the diet, which had been restored 
by Austria, but was not recognized by Prussia and her confederates; 
Hassenpjlug ambassador to the diet. The diet granted aid to the 
prince elector, Prussia protesting. General Haynau appointed mili- 
tary dictator in electoral Hesse (Oct. 2). Almost the entire corps of 
officers in electoral Hesse received their dismissal. 

Rupture between Prussia and Austria ; Nicholas of Russia took 
sides with the latter (two meetings in Warsaw). Meeting of the 
emperor of Austria and the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg at 
Bregenz, directed against Prussia. Execution of the decree of the 
confederacy by Bavarian and Austrian troops. The Prussian gov- 
ernment sent their troops (general Groben) into electoral Hesse, and 
seemed for a moment about to oppose the execution of the decree of 
the confederacy (encounter of the pickets at Bronnzell, Nov. 8), but 
were finally satisfied with occupying the military roads of Prussia. 
Dismissal of the minister Radowitz, and thereby complete abandon- 
ment of the Prussian exertions for union. In the 

1850. Conference at Olmiitz (Manteuffel and Schwar- 
Nov. 29. zenberg) Prussia yielded to all the demands of Austria ; 

Schleswig-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, the unlimited 
authority of the elector was restored in electoral Hesse. The ques- 
tion of the German constitution was settled at the 
1850-1851. Conference at Dresden 

Dec. 23-May 15. after a lengthy discussion, wherein the influence 
of the emperor of Russia had great weight, by a simple re- 
turn to the diet of the confederacy. Prussia herself invited the 
former members of the union to send representatives to that 
body, so that the 

1851. German confederation of 1815 was reestablished in its 
old form. 

1851- First universal industrial exhibition in Lon- 
don. 

1851. In Paris, coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who be- 
Dec. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 

1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five 
great power? and Sweden. In order to guarantee the in- 
tegrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the 
crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, with- 



A. D. Continental Europe. 499 

out consulting the estates of the duchies. The female line next 
in succession having renounced its rights, Christian of Sonderburg- 
Gliicksburg was proclaimed heir of the childless king Frederic VII. 
for the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by Hanover, 
Saxony, and Wiirtemberg, but not by the German confederation. 

1852, Dec. 1. Napoleon III., emperor of the French (1852- 

1870). 
1853-1856. War of Russia against Turkey and 

1854-1856. "War of the western powers against 
Russia. Crimean "War. 

Cause : Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catha- 
rine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas I. Thinking an 
alliance between England and France impossible, and believing that 
he had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward with- 
out hesitation. He developed his views, concealing but little, to the 
English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour : Servia, Bosnia, Bul- 
garia, and the principalities of the Danube should become independent 
states under - Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied 
provisionally, by Russian troops ; the prospect of the acquisition of 
Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavor- 
able attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand 
for a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the 
Turkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian am- 
bassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the prop- 
osition. Mentchikoff left Constantinople with threats (May 21, 1853). 

1853, A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance 
to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes 

of observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the 
principalities of the Danube (July) . Meeting between Nicholas and the 
emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmutz (Sept.), where 
however, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assur- 
ance of neutrality under certain conditions. The Porte declared war 
upon Russia (Oct.). Omer Pacha crossed the Danube and held his 
ground against the Russians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian 
fleet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. 
Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the 
Danube, 

1854, March 12. Alliance of the western powers with Turkey, and 
March 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Rus- 
sia. Paskevitch appointed to the chief command of the Russian 

army which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). 
England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen- 
trated in Gallipoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these 
states declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act o- 
war, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The 
emperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation " for strategic reasons " 
(July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were pro- 
visionally occupied by the Austrians. 



500 Modern History. A. d 

A second French and English fleet {Napier) appeared in the Baltic, 
but could make no impression upon the fortress of Kronstadt and cap- 
tured Only the small fortress of Bomarsund, upon one of the Aland 
Islands. 

At the southern seat of war, the allies landed at Varna, on the 
Black Sea (June). Marshal St. Arnaud and lord Raglan command- 
ers-in-chief. The French invasion of the Dobrudsha was followed by 
great losses through sickness. At Varna the expedition to the 
Crimea was resolved upon, in order to destroy Sebastopol and an- 
nihilate the Russian naval power in the Black Sea. The French and 
English (50,000 men together) and 6,000 Turks landed at Eupatoria, 
on the west coast of the Crimea, Sept. 14, and defeated the Russians 
in the 
1854, Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma. 

Marshal St. Arnaud died of the cholera. The command of 
the French given to Canrobert. After the English had established 
themselves on the bay of Balaklava, and the French on the bay of 
Kamiesch, the 

1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol 

Oct. Nov. began. The city was surrounded by new fortresses by 
MentchUcoff, under the superintendence of Totleben, and the 
harbor closed by sunken ships of war. An attack of the allies upon 
Sebastopol failed (Oct. 17). The Russian general Liprandi attacked 
the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25) and inflicted a severe loss upon 
them (charge of the Light Brigade). Af ter Mentchikoff had received 
reinforcements, he attacked the allies anew, but was defeated in the 
bloody 

1854, Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. 

Slow progress of the siege works during the winter. After 
the emperor of Russia had rejected the conditions of peace which 
were supported by Prussia and Austria, the latter power joined the 
alliance of the western powers (Dec. 1854), and placed a consider- 
able force upon the Russian boundary without, however, commencing 
actual operations of war. Prussia persisted in her neutral attitude. 
Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia concluded an alliance with the western 
powers and sent 15,000 men under La Marmora to the Crimea. A 
Russian attack upon Eupatoria was repulsed by the Turks. 

1855, March 2. Death of Nicholas I. His son 

1855-1881. Alexander II. (abolition of serfdom 1858- 
1863). 
Prince Gortchakoff 'received the chief command in Sebastopol. After 
fruitless negotiations in Vienna, Austria again assumed an attitude 
of waiting and withdrew a portion of the troops on the Russian border. 
Enormous losses among the besiegers, from sickness {Florence Night- 
ingale). Privations and daily skirmishes. At the request of Canro- 
bert the command of the French forces was transferred to general 
Pelissier (May 10). A general storm was repulsed, with great loss 
to the allies (June 18). Lord Raglan died June 28, and Simpson be- 
came commander-in-chief of the English army. 



A. i>. Continental Europe. 501 

After a continuous bombardment and many bloody engagements 

1855. Storm of the Malakoff tower by the French, and of th.j 
Sept. 8. Redan by the English, who were, however, soon driven out 

again by the Russians. 

Sept. 11. The Russians, by means of a pontoon bridge, withdrew into 
the northern part of the fortress. Occupation of the city of 
Sebastopol by the allies. 

Nov. 28. In Asia, capture of the fortress of Kars by the Russians. 
At the congress of Paris (France, England, Russia, Turkey, Sar- 
dinia, Austria, and at the last Prussia), the 

1856, March 30. Peace of Paris was agreed upon. 

1. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of 
Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower Danube. 2. Russia re- 
nounced the one-sided protectorate over the Christians in Turkey 
(whose elevation to equality with the Mohammedan population was 
promised by the Porte), and over the principalities of the Danube, 
whose relations were to be settled later. 3. Russia restored Kars, 
and promised not to establish any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to 
maintain there more ships than the Porte. 4. The western powers 
restored Sebastopol to Russia, after having destroyed the docks, the 
constructions in the harbor, and the fortifications. [5. Adoption of 
the four rules : 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 2. The 
neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. 
Neutral goods, except contraband of war, not liable to capture under 
an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, to be binding, must be effective.] 
1856-1857. Dispute between the king of Prussia and Switzerland, in 

consequence of a hasty suppression of a royalistic outbreak in 
Neuchatel (Neuenburg), settled by the release of the royalistic pris- 
oners by the Swiss, and the renunciation of Neuchatel by the king of 
Prussia. 
1857-1860. French and English expedition against China. 

Cause : infractions of the treaty with the English (of 1842) 
by the Chinese led to hostilities in Oct., 1856, between the English 
and the Chinese officials of Canton. The French government, which 
purposed an alteration of the commercial treaty with China, joined in 
supporting the English demands. 

1857, Dec. Occupation of Canton by the allies. 

1858. Treaty of Tien-Tsin, which opened to European trade and the 
June, missionaries entrance to the interior of China, and allowed 

standing embassies to be established in the capital, Pekin. 

1859, June. Infraction of the treaty of Tien-Tsin. The English, 

French, and American ambassadors, who were on their way to 
Pekin, were turned back at the mouth of the Pei-ho. 
The attempt of the English and French to force their passage 

failed; an attack upon the forts, undertaken with bit few troops, was 

repulsed with great loss. 

1860. Landing of a French (general Montauban) and English (gen- 
May, eral Grant) corps at Shang-hai ; storm of the fortified camp, 

while the flotilla of the allies proceeded up the Pei-ho. 
Negotiations commenced by the Chinese. In consequence of their 



502 Modern History. A. D. 

dubious and faithless conduct the allies made a new advance, defeated 
a Tatar army of 25,000 men in the 

1860. Battle of Palikao, and marched upon Pekin. Destruction of 
Sept. 21. the summer palace of the emperor as punishment for the 
cruel mutilation and execution of several persons whom the 
Chinese had treacherously captured. In affright prince Kong, 
the emperor's brother, concluded the 
1860. Peace of Pekin, which ratified the treaty of Tien-Tsin and 
Oct. 24, 25. imposed upon the Chinese the payment of a large in- 
demnity. 
1857. Illness of Frederic William IV. The prince of Prussia as- 
Oct. sumed the vice-regency, and later (Oct. 7, 1858) the regency 
as provided by the constitution of Prussia. The prince re- 
gent replaced the ministry of Manteuffel by an old liberal ministry 
(prince of Hohenzollern, Auerswald, Schleinitz, Bonin, Bethmann-Holl- 
weg, and afterwards count Schwerin). 

1859. War of France and Sardinia with Austria. 

April-July. An Austrian ultimatum having been rejected, field- 
marshal Gyulay crossed the Ticino, but his inactivity gave 
the French time to come to the assistance of the Piedmontese. 
Napoleon III. assumed the chief command. 
An extensive reconnoitring expedition of Gyulay 's led to the 

May 20. Engagement of Montebello ; the Austrians, after obsti- 
nate resistance, driven back. Garibaldi and his volunteers in- 
vaded Lombardy. The allies assuming the offensive, Gyulay retired 

across the Ticino and was defeated in the 

June 4. Battle of Magenta 

(Napoleon III., Canrobert, MacMahori). 

Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. The em- 
peror Francis Joseph took the chief command in person. The 
Austrian army was defeated by the allies in the 

June 24. Battle of Solferino. 

The emperor Francis Joseph in a meeting with Napoleon III. 

July 11, in Villafranca was induced to accept preliminaries of peace 
(exchanged July 8) which were ratified and completed in the 

1859, Nov. 10. Peace of Zurich. 

1. The emperor Francis Joseph ceded Lombardy (with the ex- 
ception of Mantua and Peschiera) to Napoleon III., who surrendered 
it to Sardinia. 2. Italy was to form a confederation (Staatenbund) 
under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 3. The sovereigns of 
Tuscany and Modena, who had been expelled in April and July, were 
to be reinstated; the revolted legations (Bologna, etc.), were to be 
given back to the Pope, but "without foreign intervention." 

Despite these enactments of the peace of Zurich * 

1860. Tuscany, Parma (whose sovereigns had likewise been expelled), 
Spring. Modena, and the papal legations were united with the mon- 
archy of Victor Emmanuel, who, in return, was obliged to sur^ 
render Savoy and Nice to France. 

Descent of Garibaldi with 1,000 volunteers (soon 4,000, May 11) 



A. D. Continental Europe. 503 

upon Sicily. He marched upon Palermo. Bombardment of the city 
by the Neapolitan general Lanza, whereupon the city capitulated on 
condition of the free withdrawal of 25,000 Neapolitan troops (June 
6). Messina evacuated by the Neapolitans, with the exception of 
the citadel (June 28). Garibaldi landed on the mainland (Aug. 
20). Surrender of Reggio, triumphal progress through the southern 
half of the peninsula. King Francis II. left his capital, Naples, and 
retired behind the Volturno with 40,000 men, retreating to the for- 
tresses of Gaeta and Capua (Sept.). Meanwhile the Piedmontese 
troops under Fanti and Cialdini had entered Umbria and the Marches, 
where the desire for annexation had long since made itself manifest. 
The French general Lamoriciere, who had entered the papal service, 
was defeated in the 

1860. Engagement at Castelfidardo by Cialdini. The Papal 
Sept. 18. States (excepting the Patrimonium Petri) were annexed by 

Victor Emmanuel, who thereupon invaded the Neapolitan terri- 
tory (Oct.) and joined Garibaldi. The Neapolitan army retreated 
behind the Garigliano, Capua was taken. Francis II. and his troops 
retired to Gaeta. 

1860-1861. Siege of Gaeta. Francis II. capitulated after a brave 
Nov. 12-Feb. 13. defence and went to Rome. 

1861, March 17. Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. 
With the exception of Venice and the Patrimonium Petri the 

whole peninsula was united under one sceptre. Death of Cavour, 
June 6, 1861. New expedition of Garibaldi, with volunteer bands, to 
liberate Rome, against the wishes of the government. He was 
wounded and captured at Aspromonte, the southern point of Italy, 
Aug. 29, 1862. Treaty between France and Italy (Sept. 15, 1864), 
whereby the duration of the French occupation of Rome was limited 
to two years, and the Italian government undertook to protect the 
Patrimonium Petri against any foreign invasion. Florence mr.de th<* 
capital of Italy. 

1861, Jan 2. Death of Frederic William IV. The prince regent 
mounted the throne as 

1861-1888. William I., king of Prussia. 

1861-1867. Mexican Expedition, undertaken, at first, by France, 

England, and Spain in common. 
1861. Treaty of London between these three powers. The purpose 
Oct. 31. of the expedition was to force the republic of Mexico to 

fulfill certain treaty obligations towards these nations. 

1861, Dec-1862, Jan. Occupation of La Vera Cruz and the fort of 

San Juan d' Ulloa by the allies. 

1862. Treaty of La Soledad with Juarez, president of Mexico, who 
Feb. 19. promised to pay the indemnity and the arrears of debt, as 

required. Juarez did not fulfill the obligations incurred, and 
demanded the delivery of his opponent, Almonte, who had come to the 
French camp from Paris. 

England and Spain withdrew from the expedition. Napoleon III., 
acting on the expectation that the republic of the United Stales oj 
America would be broken up by the war between the North and the 



504 Modem History. A. D. 

South, resolved to create a monarchy in Mexico. Magnificent plan to 
check the spread of the Anglo-Germanic race by this expedition, and 
induce a regeneration of the Latin race. 

1862. An attack upon Puebla by 5,000 French repulsed. Retreat to 
May. Orizaba. The emperor sent 25,000 men as reinforcements, fol- 
lowed by more considerable numbers, to Mexico. After a long 
and bloody contest 

1863. Puebla, bravely defended by Ortega, was captured by the 
May. French general Forey, who entered Mexico. The French 

called an assembly of notables, composed of opponents of 
Juarez, caused the monarchy to be proclaimed by this body, and the 
imperial crown of Mexico to be offered to the archduke Maximilian, 
brother of the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This young and 
ambitious prince, gifted with excellent abilities, suffered himself to be 
inveigled by Napoleon III. into accepting the crown. 

1864. June. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Prolonged contest 

with the republican armies. The new monarchy constantly in 
financial difficulties. Impossibility of establishing a settled state of 
affairs in a land so torn with party feuds. 

Meanwhile the end of the civil war in the United States had com- 
pletely altered the political relations. The decisive demand of the 
United States government that the French troops should be with- 
drawn from Mexico, put a sudden end to the magnificent plans of the 
French emperor. He submitted at once to the request of the United 
States. 

1867. Withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico. The emperor 
Spring. Maximilian, who refused to leave with the French, continued 

the war alone. After a brave resistance he was surrounded in 
Queretaro, captured by treachery {Lopez ?), brought to trial before a 
court-martial at Juarez' command, and shot (June 19, 1867). 

In Austria, in spite of the vehement opposition of the nobility and 
the clergy, 

1861. Publication of a new, liberal constitution for the united 
Feb. 26. monarchy with a close diet for the Germano-Slavonic 

lands, and a wider diet (only projected, however) which by the 
participation of Hungarian members was to represent the united mon- 
archy, with the exception of Venice, for which the introduction of a 
special constitution was promised. Resistance to the February consti- 
tution, not only by the Hungarians, who demanded the restoration of 
their separate constitution with a special ministry, but also by the 
national parties of the other non-Germanic peoples of the empire. 
1861. Coronation of the king of Prussia, William I. in Konigsberg; 
Oct. 18. soon after there broke out a constitutional conflict in conse- 
quence of a reorganization of the army which the government had carried 
out. Dissolution of the house of representatives (March, 1862). Res- 
ignation of the Schwerin ministry. Heydt ministry. The opposi- 
tion majority returned from the new elections (May) with increased 
strength (party of progress (Fortschritt), and the left centre). 

Von Bismarck (Otto Edward Leopold, prince of BismarcJc-Schon- 
lausen, born 1815, 1848 member of the united Prussian legislature, 



a. d. Continental Europe, 505 

1851 member of the diet of the confederation at Frankfort, after- 
wards ambassador at St. Petersburg and at Paris) became president 
of the ministry. The ministry governed without the passage of a 
money bill. [Especial care bestowed upon the army, in which, accord- 
ing to Bismarck, the hope of Prussia and Germany rested (" Blood 
and Iron ")]. 

1862. Revolution in Greece. King Otto (f 1867) compelled to 
leave the country by an insurrection. Provisional government. 

After a long search the Greeks found in George of Denmark a prince 
who accepted their throne (1863). England ceded to Greece the 
Ionian Islands (p. 483). 

1863, Jan. Uprising in Poland and Lithuania suppressed in the 

spring of 1864. 
1863. Congress of German princes at Frankfort o. M., under 
Aug. the presidency of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to con- 
sider a reorganization of Germany. The meeting was without 
result, Prussia refusing to take any part in the deliberations. 
The " Eider-Danes " in Copenhagen having brought about the 
1863. Incorporation of Schleswig with Denmark, the patience of 
March 30. the diet of the German confederation, so well preserved 
in face of the encroachments of the Danes since 1852, was ex- 
hausted, and an immediate execution of the decree of the 
confederation was decreed (Oct. 1). 

1863, Nov. 15. Death of Frederic VIL, king of Denmark. 
According to the London Protocol (p. 498), Christian IX. suc- 
ceeded for the entire monarchy. In spite of this and regardless of 
his father's renunciation, the hereditary prince of Augustenburg pro- 
claimed himself duke of Schleswig-Holstein as Frederic VIII. 

Yielding to the pressure of the influential party of the Eider-Danes 
in Copenhagen, Christian IX. accepted the new Danish constitution 
which incorporated Schleswig with Denmark. Great excitement in 
Germany. Public opinion decidedly favored the complete separation 
of Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark, and demanded of the German 
confederation at least a preliminary occupation of the duchies. On 
the motion of Austria and Prussia, however, who were bound by the 
London Protocol, the confederation undertook nothing but the execu- 
tion of its decree, and caused Hanoverians and Saxons (general Hake) 
to enter the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, which belonged to the 
confederation. Frederic VIII. proclaimed duke throughout Holstein. 

1864, Feb.-Oct. "War of Austria and Prussia with 
Denmark. 

Cause: Austria and Prussia demanded the repeal of the No- 
vember constitution as being inconsistent with former agreements. 
(Denmark in 1852, when the two powers handed over Schleswig-Hol- 
stein to her, had promised " to respect the rights of the duchies," 
which clearly excluded an incorporation of Schleswig.) Refusal of 
Denmark, Advance of the Austro-Prussian army (Feb. 1, field-mar- 
shal v. Wrangel, prince Frederic Charles ; Austrian general v. Gab- 
lenz) into Schleswig. (Holstein continued in possession of the troops of 
the confederation.) The Austrians advanced upon the Daneiverk, 



506 Modern History, A. D. 

under heavy fighting; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at 
Missunde, crossed the Schlei at Amis. The Danish commander De 
Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by gen- 
eral Gerlach. The Austrians under Gablenz undertook to clear North 
Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian ad- 
vance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederic 
Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments 
of Diippel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 
1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the 
Feb. 22-March 12. siege artillery. 

March 15- April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Diippel. 
April 18. Brilliant storming of Diippel by the Prussians. Cap- 
ture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated to Alsen, 
evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jutland occu- 
pied by the allies, as a ransom. 
May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at 
London. 
Prussia and Austria seceded from the London Protocol. As no 
agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the 
duchies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representa- 
tive of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schleswig 
according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians 
under prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief com- 
mand) accomplished the 

June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes 
at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jilt- 
land occupied by the allies. 

At sea a Prussian squadron under Jachmarn had fought success- 
fully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet under 
Tegethoff had won a victory at Heligoland, and after the truce had 
captured the islands off Friesland. These misfortunes induced Chris- 
tian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 

1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna. 

1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the 
duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg in favor of the emperor 
of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize what- 
ever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states. 

Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against 
Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed ; the 
troops of the confederation {Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the 
country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the 
city of Schlesvng.' 

While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the 
diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, 
and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, 
the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a 
wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision 
in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and 
the 

1865. Treaty of Gastein was concluded between Prussia and Aus- 
Aug. 14. tria. 



A. D. Austro-Prussian War. 507 

1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of loth duchies, in com- 
mon ; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, 
Prussia that of Schleswig. 

2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of 
the confederation ; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but 
Prussia received the chief command there ; a military road, a tele- 
graph and postal line through Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia. 

3. The emperor of Austria surrendered all his rights to the duchy 
of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dol- 
lars. 

In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig 
(governor, v. ManteuffeV) and Austria the duchy of Holstein (governor, 
v. Gablenz). The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates 
had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prus- 
sia. 

Beep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Germany. Be- 
tween the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, 
being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real in- 
crease of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confed- 
eration upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle 
states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German 
question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 

1866. The Austro-Prussian 'War. 1 

June 16-July 22. The war proper lasted one month : June 22 to 

(Aug. 23). July 22. 

Allies of Prussia : the smaller North German states and 
Italy. 

Allies of Austria : Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Hano- 
ver, Baden, the two Hesses. 

Cause of the ■war : the desire of the German people for greater 
unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany 
with a strong central government as long as two great powers con- 
fronted one another in the German confederation, one having a pop- 
ulation largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. 

Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Al- 
bingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augusten- 
burg should be recognized as duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the 
confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 
22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was cre- 
ated : 1. its whole military force should become an integral part of 
the Prussian army and fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be 
united with those of Prussia ; 2. that several important military posts 
(Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable 
her to undertake the necessary protection of the new state against 
Denmark. 

Reason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable op- 
portunity of acquiring Venice. 

l Der Feldzug von 1866 in Deutschland (by the Prussian General Staff) 
and Oesterreichs Kampfim Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff). 



508 Modern History. A. D. 

Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to that 
step by the preparations of its opponent. 

The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Mo- 
ravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men), 
who made his headquarters at Olmiitz. The command of the army 
in Venice (southern army) given to archduke Albert. 

Prussia placed five armies in the field : — 

1. First army in Lusatia (93,000) under prince Frederic Charles. 

2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince, 
Frederic William. 

3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under general 
Herwarth von Bittenfeld. 

4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. Miilbe (24,000). 

5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first divided 
into three corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Schles- 
wig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-chief of 
all forces, king William I. ; chief of the great general staff, gen- 
eral v. Moltke. 

The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frank- 
fort, May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that at 
any peace conference which might be held there should be no refer- 
ence to an alteration of boundaries. 

The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (June 2) by 
the Austrian governor, v. Gablenz, led to an open rupture. Prussia 
declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Man- 
teuffel entered Holstein (June 7) ; v. Gablenz, under protest, retreated 
to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian terri- 
tory. 

On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confed- 
eration broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein, 
1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army of 
June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussian 
corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the German 
confederation. 
June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disre- 
gard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troops 
upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead of 
Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians in- 
vaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King George retreated to 
the south ; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a pris- 
oner. The Prussians invaded Saxony (Herwarth) ; the Saxon army, 
king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupied 
(June 18) ; all Saxony, excepting Konigstein, in the hands of the 
Prussians (June 20). 

Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxony 
opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and the 
first army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration of 
the Austrian power about Olmiitz threatened the province of Silesia, 
but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians de- 
termined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia. 



A. d. Austro- Prussian War. 509 



A. Principal Scene of "War in Bohemia. 
June 22-25. Prussian invasion of Bohemia. 

June 26, 27. Prussian victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the 
crown prince) at Hiihnerivasser, Nachod (June 27) ; victory of 
the Austrians at Trautenau (June 27). 
June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Miinchengratz forced back the 
Austrians and Saxons. 

Meantime the Silesian army defeated v. Gablentz at Soor (June 
28), and the crown prince occupied Trautenau. Prussian victories of 
Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of 
Koniginhof. 

The engagement at Schweinschadel completed the purposed ap- 
proach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were pur- 
posely not united, but kept asunder in a manner " which, being 
without danger strategically considered, secured great tactical ad- 
vantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been 
directed by telegraph from Berlin. 

June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the 
general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war. 

On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole 
force on the next day, they being stationed behind the Bistritz brook, 
with the fortress of Koniggratz and the Elbe in their rear. 
1866. July 3. Battle of Kbnigratz or Sadowa. 

The first Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe (king William 
I., prince Frederic Charles, v. Herv;artli), had a severe contest with the 
northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, under Benedek ; 
in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, 
gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, 
and in combination with the first army secured the complete vic- 
tory of the Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the 
exhaustion of the troops. Retreat of the Austrians toward Olmiitz. 

Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded 
Yenetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was re- 
jected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern 
army was transferred to the northern seat of war. 

Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (July 8), of Brunn (July 
12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna. 

Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off 
from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, 
and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpa- 
thians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary. 

July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the an- 
nouncement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which 
was converted into 
July 26. The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of 
peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510). 

E. Western Seat of War. 

The entire army of the confederation was under the command of 
prince Charles of Bavaria. 



510 Modern History. A. D. 

1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and 

June 27. troops of Coburg-Gotha, at Langensalza ; the junction of 
the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, 
prevented. 

June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. 

July 4-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in 
five battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German 
troops {Hammelburg, Kissingen, Friedrichshall, Hausen, Wal- 
daschach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. 

July 14. Engagement at Aschaffenburg ; victory over the united 
Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frank- 
fort (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Wurz- 
burg and Nuremberg. 

Aug. 2. Truce. 

C. Seat of War in Italy. 

1866. Battle of Custozza ; victory of the Austrians (archduke 
June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The 
Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Aus- 
trian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the 
north, the Italians again advanced. 
July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians {Tegethoff) at Lissa over 

the Italians (Persano). 
1866. Peace of Prague 
Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria. 

1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the 
German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany 
without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. 
A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north 
German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Aus- 
tria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the 
reservation that the northern districts of Schleswig should be reunited 
with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such re- 
union by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid 
twenty million rix dollars ($15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 
4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy. 

Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and 
the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, 
so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was in- 
creased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) 
to 140,000 square miles (twenty- three and a half million inhabitants). 

Peace between Prussia and Wurtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 
17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21). 

The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in 
the main given up, inasmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a 
rectification of boundaries as regarded Germany ; conclusion of an 
offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern 
states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern 
states placed their entire military force under the command of the 
king of Prussia in the event of war. The demand of Napoleon III 
rejected. 



A. Do Austro-Prussian War. 511 

1866. Peace of Vienna 

Oct. 3. between Austria and Italy. Austria recognized the king- 
dom of Italy, with which Venice was united. Prussia hav- 
ing concluded an alliance with the North German states in August, 

1866, elections for a North German diet were prescribed on a basis of 
manhood and direct suffrage. 

1867. First diet of the North German Confederation. 

Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreed with the govern- 
ments upon a constitution for the North German Confed- 
eration : presidency of the league united with the crown of 
Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international re- 
lations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited 
ambassadors in its name. The governments were represented in the 
council of the confederation (Bundesrath) , in which Prussia had 
seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes 
altogether. Imperial diet {Reichstag) originating from direct man- 
hood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the 
king of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. United 
customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancellor 
of the confederation. 

1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense 
was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The 
former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, after- 
wards (uutil 1871) chancellor of the empire. Agreement with 
Hungary. Restoration of the Hungarian constitution. Solemn corona- 
tion of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. 
Reunion of the dependent lands (Croatia, Transylvania) with Hun- 
gary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the 
monarchy this side of the Leith (Cisleithania) . (The constitution of 
1861, p. 504, was suspended hi 1865.) Germano-Slavonic Reichstag. 

1867. Luxemburg question. 

Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation 
for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His nego- 
tiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the 
grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the 
objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the 
Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Un- 
der the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, 
the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 
1867, London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great 
May 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree- 
ments : 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed 
by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison 
evacuated Luxemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 
1867. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian govern- 
Sept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Napo- 
leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 503) broken, and sent 
assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentana. 
Rome received a new French garrison. 



512 Modern History. A. IK 

1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 

1868. Outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in Cadiz. The royal- 
Sept, ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent 

troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; 
the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional 
government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of 
a constitutional cortes. The majority of the cortes established, in 
spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new 
constitutional monarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many 
negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 
1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) ac- 
cepted the Spanish crown. After his withdrawal, during the Franco- 
Prussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, 
king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 
1870-1873. Amadeus I., king of Spain. 

1869. In France general election for the corps le'gislatifj for the first 
time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party 

spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, espe- 
cially the country population, gave the government a good majority, 
though weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the 
ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the govern- 
ment and the dynasty. 

1869» Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which 
was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projec- 
tor, the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 

1869, Dec. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of 

the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 
547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. 
Vacillating and indecisive conduct of the emperor Napoleon III. 
in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the 
arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by 
any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the " vice emperor " 
Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar re- 
actionary elements ; then, as the different factions of the opposition 
(Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, forma- 
tion of the 

1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate 

liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of the Seine, Hausmann. 
The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, a 
cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder ?), produced an ex- 
traordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprison- 
ment of Rochefort, in consequence of his incendiary newspaper arti- 
cles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte 
declared not guilty by the court in Tours. 
April. A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, 

was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of 
confidence was demanded from the people by a "plebiscite " (May), 
which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a 
majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million 
nays, the latter being cast in Paris and the larger cities. In the 



A. D. Franco- German War. 513 

army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted " no." In view of this 
grave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant agitation of the 
parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions which 
had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in 
foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to 
be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the 
emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more 
and more strongly urged by his intimate councillors (the 
marshal Lebceuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs) . 

1870, July 19-1871, March 3. Franco-Prussian War. 1 

General Causes : 1. The idea entertained by a great part of the 
French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily 
press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontieres 
naturelles 2 ) . 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle 
of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consummation 
of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the 
victory of the latter state over Austria an unpermissible encroach- 
ment upon their own military fame. 

Special causes : 1. The internal troubles of the government of 
Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the " compensation " de- 
manded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of 
Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching in- 
troduction of an improved weapon for the north German infantry, 
which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French 
chassepot. 

Immediate cause : The election of the prince of Hohenzollern to 
the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prus- 
sian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made 
by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king William I. in 
person, that he should forbid the prince of Hohenzollern to accept the 
Spanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the 
prince, the French government looked to the king of Prussia for a 
distinct announcement " that he would never again permit the candi- 
dacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to 
discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regular method of 
communication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the tele- 
graphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke 
of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, 
artificially fermented (cries of "a Berlin ! "). In the corps legislatif 
(July 15), opposition of a small minority {Thiers: "because France 
is not prepared for war ") to the declaration of war, which the imperial 
government declared was forced upon them by Prussia (" La France 
accepte la guerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 

1 Der deutsch-franz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prus^ 
sian General Staff on military history. Niemann, Derfranz. Feldzug von 
1870-71, 2 vols. An English rendering of the French view of the war will be 
found in Jerrold's Life of Napoleon III., voL iv. 

2 The first use of this idea, which can be established, was by king Charles 
VIL.UiL 



514 Modern History. a. d. 

In Germany quiet but decided attitude of the government and the 
people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received 
(July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German 
army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. 
July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. 

Opening of the north German Reichstag, which unanimously 
voted a war credit (July 23). 

South Germany understood that the French attack, although ap- 
parently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon 
the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of 
German territory and the establishment of a new confederation of 
the Rhine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on 
July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the con- 
federation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Ba- 
varian army, had a decisive influence upon Wiirtemberg. Patriotic 
attitude of Baden. 

The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south 
Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The 
grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former 
(250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, 
and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria and Italy, This should 
be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expedi- 
tions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising 
in Hanover and secure the assistance of Denmark. In reality the 
strategic advance of the French army took place as follows : — 

1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 

2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 

3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 

4. Corps under general Ladmirault at Thionville (Diedenhofen). 
The corps of marshal Canrobert at Chalons, of general F. Douay 

at Belfort, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed 
the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III. ; chief 
of the general staff, marshal Lebceuf. 

It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war 
the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. 

The German forces moved in three great armies. 

I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). 

II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (134,000, 
with the reserve 194,000). 

III. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mann- 
heim (130,000). 

The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 
198,000 were Landwehr) ; of the south German 100,000. Commander- 
in-chief, king William I. ; chief of the general staff, general Von 
Moltke. 

The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned 
for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an 
attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from 
Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Ger- 
mans could take the offensive the French made an 



A. D. 



Franco-German War. 



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516 Modern History, a. p. 

1870. Attack upon Saarbriicken. The repulse of a single bat- 
Aug. 2. talion by three divisions was represented in the French re- 
ports as an important victory. 
Aug. 4. Engagement at Weissenburg. MacMahon after a most 

courageous defense defeated in the 
Aug. 6. Battle of "Worth (Reichshoferi) by the army of the crown 

prince, which was numerically greatly his superior. 
Aug. 6. German victory at Spicheren (Saarbriicken}. 

In consequence of these defeats the French army commenced 
its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to 
besiege Strasburg and other Alsatian fortresses, and advanced upon 
Nancy ; the I. army marched upon Metz • the II. army upon Pont a 
Mousson, with the intention of surrounding the main force of the 
French about Metz and cutting them off from Paris. 

To prevent this Bazaine, upon whom the emperor had conferred 
the chief command, resolved, after some indecision, to retreat upon 
Chdlons-sur-Marne and join there the remnants of MacMahon's com- 
mand and a newly formed army. To prevent such juncture the ad- 
vance guard of the I. army attacked Bazaine and in the 
Aug. 14. Battle of Colombey-Nouilly and the 
Aug. 16. Battle of Vionville (drawn battle), with great losses, 
prevented the retreat of the French to Verdun. 
Upon the arrival of the delayed corps of the I. and II. army on the 
next day, the French were again attacked in their excellently chosen 
and partially strongly fortified positions. In the 

Aug. 18. Battle of Gravelotte and St. Privat (Bezon- 
ville) the Germans under command of king William I. gained 

an advantageous position after eight hours' hot fighting, in spite of the 

desperate resistance of the French. 

Aug. 19. Retreat of the French under the guns of Metz. 

The result of these three bloody battles near Metz was to 

separate the French force into two parts, and to surround their main 

army in and about a fortress which was not provisioned for so large 

a body of troops. 

1870, Aug. 19-0ct. 27. Siege of Metz. 

Aug. 14-Sept. 27. Siege of Strasburg by general 
Von Werder. 

After the battles near Metz, advance upon Chalons. MacMahon 
evacuated Chalons, but instead of retreating to Paris, as was expected 
at the German headquarters, he attempted to reach Metz and liberate 
Bazaine by a circuitous Hank march to the northeast. Napoleon III. 
accompanied the army. On learning of this manoeuvre the Germans 
made a detour toward the right (north). 

Bazaine's attempt to break through the German lines and join Mac~ 
Mahon frustrated by the 
Aug. 31 and Sept. 1. Engagements at Noisseville. 

MacMahon saw the impossibility of reaching Metz, and con- 
centrated his forces at Sedan. The Germans (240,000) far outnum- 
bering the French (about 100,000) decided to send a part of their 



A. d. Franco- German War. 517 

troops over the Meuse and surround the French army. This was 
accomplished by the 

Sept. 1. Battle of Sedan. 

MacMahon, wounded in the morning, gave up the command to 
Ducrot, who afterwards transferred it to the older general Wimpffen. 
The victorious advance of the Germans on all sides was not checked 
by the brilliant charges of the French cavalry. At three o'clock the 
French army was surrounded. Napoleon III. delivered his sword 
to "William I. and acknowledged himself a prisoner. Negotiations 
between Von Moltke and Wimpffen, and between Napoleon III. and 
Bismarck. The following forenoon the 
1870, Sept. 2. Capitulation of Sedan 
was signed. 

The entire French army prisoners of war : 39 generals, 2,300 offi- 
cers, 83,000 men, 20,000 having been captured during the battle 
(3,000 escaped to Belgium). Napoleon III. conducted to Wilhelms- 
hohe. 

In Paris the news of the first defeats, which had been long con- 
cealed, produced great excitement and the fall of the ministry of 
Ollivier (Aug. 10). Montauban-Palikao, the minister of war, formed 
a new ministry composed of ultra-Bonapartists. Falsification of war 
news. Paris in a state of siege. The receipt of the news of the ca- 
pitulation of Sedan caused the 

1870. Fall of the Empire and Proclamation of the 
Sept. 4. (third) Republic. 

Flight of the empress Eugenie to England. Provisional gov- 
ernment of the " National defense." Trochu (president and gover- 
nor of Paris), Favre (foreign affairs), Gambetta (interior), Cremieux 
(justice), Simon (religion and education), Leflo (war), Fourichon 
(navy). 
Sept. 4-16. March of the German armies upon Paris. 

Defenses of Paris : continuous line of bastions and trenches, sur- 
rounding the suburbs ; around this on the inside a belt railroad ; six- 
teen detached forts, two of which, Mont Valerien in the west and St. 
Denis in the north, were actual fortresses, all connected by continu- 
ous entrenchments and liberally provided with heavy artillery and 
military stores. Including the sailors and garrison, about 72,000 
veterans ; with the mobilized guards from the provinces, the guard 
mobile and national guard of Paris, over 300,000 men. Extensive 
accumulation of provisions. 

The negotiations between Bismarck and Favre leading to no result 
(refusal of any cession of territory), the great city was invested by 
the IV. 1 army on the north and east, by the III. army on the S. and 
W. Headquarters at Versailles. 

1870, Sept. 19-1871, Jan. 28. Siege of Paris. 

After the capitulation of Sedan the whole war was a struggle 
for Paris. Excepting the conquest of Alsace and German Lorraine, 

1 The IV. army was formed, after Gravelotte, from corps of the I. and II. 



518 Modern History. A. D. 

which Germany had regarded as the prize of victory, from the com- 
mencement of the war, all the military operations of the Germans had 
the object of preserving the positions and the lines of connection of 
the armies about Paris, and of preventing any attempt to raise the 
siege ; the raising of the siege was, on the contrary, the object of all 
the French operations. 

1870. In consequence of the withdrawal of the French garrison 
Sept. 20. from Rome, capture of that city by the Italian army 

and abolition of the secular power of the Pope. 
Sept. 23. Capture of Toul. 
Sept. 27. Capitulation of Strasburg. 

The delegation of the French government in Tours, since Oct. 
9, under the dictatorship of Gambetta, who had left Paris in a bal- 
loon, formed two armies for the relief of Paris : a. army of the Loire 
(not 30,000) ; o. northern army. The former defeated by the Ba- 
varian general Von der Tann in the 
1870, Oct. 10. Engagement at Artenay. Occupation of Orleans. 

While Gambetta with the greatest energy was strengthening and 
arming forces for relief, Bazaine, who, as leader of the largest regu- 
lar army in France, had thought to play a political role, by means 
of negotiations, was forced, after several unsuccessful sorties, to the 

1870, Oct. 27. Capitulation of Metz. 

(3 marshals, 6,000 officers, 187,000 men, 622 field artillery, 
876 fortress cannon). A part of the besieging army was sent 
to reinforce the armies before Paris ; a part was dispatched 
under Manteuffel against the French army of the north ; the 
largest part, under prince Frederic Charles, was sent against 
the army of the Loire. 

Nov. 28. Defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune la Rolande 
(by prince Frederic Charles), whereby the purpose of the 
French commander to force his passage to Paris was frus- 
trated. 

Nov. 27. Defeat of the army of the north at Amiens by Man- 
teuffel. 

Nov. 30. At Paris, sortie under Trochu and Ducrot, in coopera- 
tion with the intended advance of the Loire army. Storm and 
capture of Champigny and Brie. Successful defense of Vil- 
liers and Cceuily by Wiirtemberg troops. Further French ad- 
vance was checked, but they kept Brie. After great losses in 
the fight and through cold the French troops returned to 
Paris (Dec. 3). 

Dec, 2-4. Battle of Orleans, 

the name given to a number of engagements in which the 
Germans defeated the army of the Loire, with the following 
results : 1. Capture of the strong French entrenchments on the 
right bank of the Loire, and re-occupation of Orleans. 2. Sep- 
aration of the army of the Loire into two parts. Flight of the 
delegation of the government to Bordeaux (Dec. 9). 
The larger part of the Loire army driven behind Vendome ,* 
Frederic Charles, at Orleans, covered the besieging armies be- 
fore Paris from the south. 



A. D. Franco- German War. 519 

Bee. 27. Opening of the bombardment of the forts of Paris, after 
the transportation of heavy artillery and munitions had been 
accomplished with the greatest difficulty. Bombardment of 
the city, Jan. 8, 1871. 

1S71, Jan. 12. Battle of Le Mans. 

Defeat of Chanzy by Frederic Charles. The French army al- 
most annihilated. 

Jan. 6-12. Sortie from Paris against Meudon and Clamart, and one 
against Le Bourget repulsed. 
In the south, Bourbaki with 150,000 men forced von Werder, who 

was besieging Belfort, without giving up the siege, to take up a favor- 
able position along the Lisaine by a masterly retreat. In the three 

days 

Jan. 15-17. Battle of Belfort, 

Von Werder successfully defended his position, and forced 

Bourbaki to retreat. 

Jan. 18. Renewal of the title and office of German 
Emperor in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, all the 
sovereign princes and the three free cities having offered the 
crown to king William I. 

Jan. 19. Last great sortie from Paris, with 100,000 men, under 
Trochu, repulsed after severe fighting. On the same day, 

Jan. 19. Battle of St. Quentin, 

in which general Von Goben completely defeated and scattered 
the French army of the north. In the south Manteuffel forced 
the French to take refuge in the neutral territory of Switzer- 
land, where they were disarmed. 

1871, Jan. 28. Capitulation of Paris by the 

convention of Versailles : 1. surrender of all the forts 
with munitions of war, disarmament of the city wall ; 2. all French 
soldiers in Paris considered as prisoners of war, with exception of 
12,000 men, which, with the national guard, preserved order ; the 
French officials to provision the city ; 3. the city of Paris paid 200 
million francs ; 4. truce (excepting the departments of Doubs, Jura, 
and Cote d'or) for three weeks, for the purpose of allowing a free elec- 
tion for a national assembly, which was to meet in Bordeaux, and de- 
cide between peace and war. 

Gambetta's resistance to this agreement was soon broken ; his 
resignation (Feb. 6). Elections throughout France (Feb. 8). The 
national assembly formed in Bordeaux (Feb. 12). Truce prolonged 
to 24th Feb., and afterwards to March 3. Thiers, elected head of 
the executive department, conducted the negotiations with Bismarck 
which resulted in the 
Feb. 26. Preliminaries of peace at Versailles. 

1. France ceded to the German Empire : Alsace (except 
Belfort and territory) and German Lorraine, with Metz and Die- 
denhofen (Thionville), in all 4,700 square miles, with one and a half 
million inhabitants ; 2. France agreed to pay five milliards of francs 
for indemnification in three years, which were secured by an occupa- 
tion of French territory. 



520 Modern History* A. D. 

March 1. Entrance of 30,000 German troops into Paris (addi- 
tional article), and temporary occupation of a small part of the city ; 
evacuated again on March 3d. The preliminaries of peace were rati- 
fied, and the details settled in the definitive 

1871, May 10. Peace of Frankfort on Main. 

The results of the war were : 1. destruction of the military 
power of France ; 2. acquisition of a secure military boundary for 
Germany on the west ; 3. the realization of the political unity of the 
German nation. 

March 21-June 15. First imperial Parliament 

of the new German federal state (Bundestaat), which on April 
14 almost unanimously adopted the following constitution for the em- 
pire : presidency hereditarily connected with the crown of Prussia, 
whose king bore the title of German emperor, and represented the 
empire in international relations, declared war and peace (with the 
consent of the Bundesrath), concluded alliances, and had the chief 
command of the army and navy. The representatives of the 25 gov- 
ernments formed the federal council (Bundesrath) under the pres- 
idency of the chancellor of the empire (the first : prince Bis- 
marck). (In all, 58 votes : Prussia 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony and Wiir- 
temberg each 4, Baden and Hesse each 3, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
Brunswick each 2, the rest each 1.) The representatives of the people 
formed the imperial parliament {Reichstag), consisting of 382 mem- 
bers, chosen by direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military sys- 
tem ; universal compulsory service (3 years in standing army, 4 years 
in reserve, 5 years in the Landwehr), uniform postal and telegraph 
service, uniform system of coinage, weights and measures. 

The new German empire comprised 216,770 sq. miles, and more 
than 41,000,000 inhabitants. 

1871, July 1. Rome became seat of the government and capital of 

Italy, now completely united under the sceptre of Victor Em- 
manuel (guarantee for the Pope). 
Sept. Opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel across the Alps (begun 
1859 ; 7.6 miles long). 

1872, June 29. New agreement between Germany and France, 
which fixed the payment of the fourth milliard for March 1, 

1874 ; the fifth, March 1, 1875 ; and permitted the substitution of a 
financial security for this last milliard, for the occupation of French 
territory. 

1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. in Chiselhurst (England). 
Feb. Amadeus I. resigned the Spanish crown. Spain a republic. 

Anarchy. Civil war against the Federalists in Cartagena (cap- 
tured 1874), and against Don Carlos in the north. 
July-Sept. The German troops, after an anticipation of the indem- 
nity, leave the French territory. 
In Italy, in Switzerland, and in Prussia, struggle between the state 
and the Roman catholic hierarchy. In Italy, dissolution of all mon- 
asteries in Rome and the former papal states (May, 1873). In Swit- 
zerland, complete rupture with the Roman chair and establishment 



A.. D. Franco- German War, 521 

of a catholic clergy elected by the people. In Prussia, in conse- 
quence of the May laws (afterwards extended), which the catholic 
clergy openly resisted, numerous arrests and removals of ecclesias- 
tics. This contest led to the 

1874. Introduction of compulsory civil marriage and the civil 
Oct. 1. registration of births and deaths, which afterwards became 

an imperial law (Jan. 1, 1876). 
Oct. International Postal Congress in Bern. 

The regulations agreed upon went into force July 1, 1875 

(for France, Jan. 1, 1876). 
Dec. 29-31. Military " pronunciamientos " for Alfonso, prince of As-* 

turia, son of queen Isabella, led to the 

1875, Jan. Restoration of monarchy in Spain. 
1875-1885. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. In the north, in spite 

of some successes of the royal troops, the civil war continued 
against Don Carlos, whom the new king declared to be an 
usurper. 

1875. Revolt against Turkish government in Herzegovina, sup- 
July, ported by Montenegro and Servia. 

March. End of the civil war in Spain. Don Carlos was obliged to 
leave the country, and went to England. 

May/ The Turks proved unable to suppress the revolt in Herzego- 
vina. Murder of the German and French consuls in Salonica. 
The three northern great powers invited the other three to 
join in making a common representation to the Porte (memo- 
randum of Berlin). Great Britain refused to join. Before the 
memorandum could be presented a 

May 29. Palace Revolution occurred in Constantinople. Deposi- 
tion of the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, who died shortly afterwards. 
Murad V. succeeded. 

1876, July. Servia (prince Milan) and Montenegro (prince 
Nikita) declared war upon the Porte. 

A revolt which had broken out in Bulgaria bloodily suppressed by 
the Turks. The Turkish troops and the Turkish militia exercised 
shameful cruelties, which produced the greatest indignation through- 
out Europe, particularly in Russia, thereby giving the Russian gov- 
ernment a welcome excuse to proclaim itself the protector of the 
oppressed Christians, and especially of the Slavonic population in 
Turkey. Military preparations in Russia. 

Meanwhile the war was waged unsuccessfully by Servia, in spite of 
the open Russian assistance, and the presence of Russian volunteers 
in the Servian army, which obtained a Russian commander in Tsher- 
najeff, while the Montenegrins were several times victorious. 
1876. New, bloodless palace revolution in Constantinople. MuracI 
Aug. V., who suffered from an incurable mental disorder, deposed. 
He was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The 
Turkish army crossed the Servian frontier, and was prevented from 
marching further only by an ultimatum of the Russian government. 
The Porte agreed to a truce for two months at first, and afterward 
for six months. 

Russia being unable to induce any other power to join her in an 



522 Modern History. A. D. 

armed interference with Turkey, and feeing herself unprepared for 
war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were 
prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great 
powers was arranged to meet in Constantinople. 

Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitU" 
tion for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians 
equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would 
make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Christian sub- 
jects, to be guaranteed by the powers. 

1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference 
in spite of the Turkish constitution, but which had been grad- 
ually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consulta- 
tion with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The am- 
bassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople. 

Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the 
status quo ante helium. Montenegro continued in arms. 

After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no 
result, and after completion of its preparations, the Russian govern- 
ment concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a 
formal declaration that it had no conquests in view. 

1877, April-1878, March. Turco-Russian War. 

A. Seat of war in Europe : A Russian army under the 
grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Roume« 
lia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, 
which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmermann, which 
occupied the Dobrudsha ; the main army, which Alexander II. had 
meanwhile joined, forced the 
1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova. 

June 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an un- 
guarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the impor- 
tant Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while 
one division of the main army, under the crown prince, fronted east 
and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra 
and Lorn, held in check the Turkish army under Abdul Kerim (after- 
wards under Mehemed Ali, and finally under Suleiman). 

The other division of the Russian army captured Nicopolis (July 
15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna 
(S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha had collected Turkish 
troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was 
forced to wait for reinforcements. 

Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka 
Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He 
was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on 
the Lorn, where his troops had been sadly missed. 

Arrival of Roumanian troops and Russian reinforcements before 
Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a reg- 
ular siege was undertaken (gen. Totleben), and 

Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged 
to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the Rus- 
sian lines. Return of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander 



A. d. Turco-Russian War. 523 

77. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Dec. 14) declared war upon the Porte 
anew. 

Dec-Jan. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Bal- 
kans and occupied Sophia ■ a second under Radetzki and Sko- 
beleff poured through the Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction 
with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the 
Balkans, advanced by way of Philippopolis (victory of Gurko over 
remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 16 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople 
(occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople. 

B. Seat of war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand 
duke Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against 
Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish fleet to the Caucas- 
ian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army 
(Loris-Melikoff) forced its way to Kars, which it invested (May, 
1877). Two other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The 
reverses suffered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of 
Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across 
the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests. 

In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 

1877. Storm of Kars 

Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum. 

The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions 
in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkey appealed for 
mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Mean- 
while the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which 
in the 

1878. Agreement of Adrianople 

Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a 

future peace. 
1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessaly, but was induced 

to withdraw them after a few days. 
After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about 
Constantinople and had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of 
the English fleet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered 
the Sea of Marmora, the 

March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople) 
was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro 
and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, 
and were recognized as independent ; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bul- 
garia, i. e. the larger part of ancient Mcesia, Thrace, and Macedonia 
(boundaries : Danube, the Black Sea and JEgean Sea, Albania and 
Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian 
prince, separate administration and militia ; a Russian commissary 
with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The 
Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his 
European possessions which remained to him. 4. Turkey paid Rus- 
sia 300 million rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia 
and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to 
Roumania in return for the part of Bessarabia (p. 501) which she 
had ceded in 1856. 



524: Modern History. A. D. 

This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in Eng- 
land, which showed herself ready to go to war with Russia in case the 
latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also 
began to arm. 

June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), 
wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against 
Russian conquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms 
in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus 
occupied July 11). 

Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to prevent 
war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding, 
the 

1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin 
met under the presidency of prince Bismarck. 
Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became 
independent, but the cessions to be made to the two former states 
were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to 
receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The 
principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the 
Danube and the Balkans, including, however, Sophia and its territory. 
(An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg 
(Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The 
southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably nar- 
rowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule 
of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received 
a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-gen- 
eral ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish 
troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and 
Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 5. The 
Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration 
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the 
Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of 
Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum 
(as a free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 
8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, 
there should be political equality of all confessions. 
1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (p. 503). 
Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umberto (Humbert) I. 
Feb. 7. Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIII. 

(Pecci). 
May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German em- 
peror William I., who at the second attempt was somewhat 
dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the ex- 
cesses of the social democrats. 

1878. Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and Herzego- 
July 29. vina, where part of the inhabitants offered armed resist- 
ance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 

1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated 
by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new 
tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The 



A. D. Turco-Russian War. 525 

Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired ; his 
successor, Von Puttkamer (July 14). 
Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an al- 
liance with France against Germany, 
Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was 

concluded between Prussia and Austria. 
Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German em- 
pire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig). 

1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase 
Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three des- 
perate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten 

months), general Loris-Melikoff was clothed with a sort of dictatorial 
power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by conces- 
sions. 

Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new 
laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply in Bel- 
gium (liberal ministry of Frere Orban since 1878). 

In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain 
limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 520) were 
introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political leg- 
islation. 

The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been com- 
pletely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the 
Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made 
to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a sur- 
render of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the 
June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin 

was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propo- 
sitions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina 
to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed 
interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all 
the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration 
produced the 
Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro. 

1881. March 13. Alexander II. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was 

succeeded by his son, 

1881-1894. Alexander III. 

Roumania made a kingdom. 
March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The 

Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, 

though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the 

Berlin conference. 
Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of 

Russia at Danzig. 

1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. 
Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points. 

Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal 
rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and an- 
nouncing that all persons in government service were expected 
to support the government at elections. 



526 Modern History. A. D. 

1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. 
Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years 
of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property 
or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin 
de liste ; minority representation in districts returning five or 
more deputies. 

Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established 
in the university of Prague. 

.Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder 
of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the 
peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive meas- 
ures, undaunted activity of the nihilists. 

March 6. Servia made a kingdom ; prince Milan king as Milan 1 

March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and south- 
ern Dalmatia by the Austrians. 
Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag 
to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). 
Approaching end of the Kulturkampf. 

April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in 
Russia ; he was succeeded by De Giers • this change, regarded 
as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehen- 
sions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives 
of Skobeleff'm. Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, f July 7). 

May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. 
(Begun 1872, tunnel 9^ miles long.) 

June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice ; conspira- 
tor in 1833 ; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835 ; defense 
of Rome, 1849 ; in North America, 1854 ; service against Aus- 
tria, 1859, 1860 ; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 
1867 ; participation in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870, 1871 ; 
member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875). 
Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in 
the German Reichstag. 

1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal 

speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over 
the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. 

Sept. Anti- Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27-30). 

Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norway. Return of an increased 
radical majority. (See p. 578.) 

§ 3. FRANCE. {Seep. 485.) 

1815-1882. 

1814 (1815)-1824. Louis XVIII. 

First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal 
constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814 : hereditary mon- 
archy ; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house 
elected by the people) ; freedom of the press ; religious liberty ; re- 
sponsible ministers ; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. 
The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483* Fall of 
Napoleon. 



A< D. France. h%l 

1815, July 8. Second restoration. 

1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. 
Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485). 
An ultra-royalist chamber (chambre introuvable ; compare the " Cav- 
alier " parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur 
blanche. Parties : court (Richelieu), advocating return to the old 
monarchy ; legitimists (Decazes); doctrinaires (Guizot), advocates of 
constitutional monarchy with strong administration ; liberals (inde- 
pendents, Perier, Lafayette) ; Bonapartists ; republicans. Gravitation 
towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie). 

Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.) ; of 
Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.). 

1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of 

Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws re- 
stricting freedom of the press and of elections. 
Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the 
duke of Berry ; "Henry V. ; " " Europe's child." Presenta- 
tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription. 

1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena. 

1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of Villele (ultra-royalist). 

1823, French intervention in Spain ; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; 
liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of Angouleme. 
Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial 
election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ul- 
tra-royalists (chambre retrouvee, 1824). 

1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII. 

1824-1830. Charles X. 

1825, March. Grant of a milliard ($200,000,000) to returned refugees 

as compensation for their confiscated estates. 1 
Growth of the liberal party : Collaud, Constant, Perier, Broglie, 
Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits. 

1827, April 30. National guard disbanded. 

1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return 

of a liberal majority at the election. 

1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry (" too liberal for 

the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals"). 

1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry ; reactionary, ultra-roy- 

alist. " No more concessions ! " 

1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech ; 

vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May 16. 
July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French. 

Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French 
ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French gov- 
ernment to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in 
France, by some outside success. 

Algeria (Afrique Francaise) subjugated by a tedious war with the 
Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader 
(1827, captured by Lamoriciere and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of 

l The ruined cavaliers in England got $3,000,000 in 1661. 



528 



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a., d. France. 529 

Louis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Na- 
poleon). 

New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority ; 202 of 
the 221 reelected (" aide toi"). 

1830, July 27-29. The July Revolution. The Three 
Days of July. The Great Week. 

Cause : publication of the three (five) ordinances on July 26, 
professedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared 
illegal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily changed so as to restrict 
the suffrage to rich land-owners. 3. Prohibition of the publication of 
newspapers and pamphlets without a royal permit. This violation of 
the charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests {Thiers, 
Mignet). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie ; imper- 
fect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who 
in part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of 
the Hotel de Ville. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of the 
troops. Provisional government : Lajitte, Perier, Barrot. Lafayette 
commander of the national guard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. 
Duke of Orleans lieutenant general of France (" the charter hence- 
forward to be a reality"). 

Charles X. (f in Gorz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke of 
Angouleme, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke 
of Bordeaux (who subsequently called himself count of Chambord, p. 
527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line 
of Bourbon (Orleans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the 
throne in the person of 

1830-1848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French (le 
roi bourgeoise; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in 
a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. 
The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Bro- 
glie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.) ; of Lafitte (1830, 
Nov. 2-1831, March 13) ; of Casimir Perier (1831, Mar. 13-1832, 
May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. 

Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832). 
1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. 

Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April). 

1835, July 28. FiescWs infernal machine. 

By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons 
were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of 
laws limiting the freedom of the press (laws of September). Re- 
tirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires) ; ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 
(Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 {Mole, Guizot- Thiers 
out). 

1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I., see the 

genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to 
get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured 
without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to 
America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity 
of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse). 1 

1 Guizot, Memoires, vol. iv. chap. 24. 

34 



530 Modern History. A. D. 

Ministry of April 15 (1837), Mol6 without Guizot. Union of 
Guizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris 
(May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12-1840, Mar. 1), 
without Guizot, Thiers, Odilon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, 
Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt 
of Mehemet Ali (p. 491). 
1840. Second adventurous attempt of Louis Napoleon. 

He sailed from Margate with only fifty adherents to Bologne, 
where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of 
peers, and condemned to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham 
under the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846). 

The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the 
prince of Joinville, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly 
entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). 
Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15) ; 
anger of France. Fall of Thiers. 
1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot. 

Death of the duke of Orleans (1842, July 13). Trouble with 
England : Tahiti (Pritchard) ; Spanish marriages (1843-44). De- 
mand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the 
chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensee immuable). 
During this reign development of the parties : Legitimists (count 
of Chambord) ; Orleanists ; Bonapartists ; Republicans. 
1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February. 

Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by 
members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of 
the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy 
of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned 
(Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the 
Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orleans (f 1842) and the 
princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orleans in the chamber 
of deputies. (Vemeute etait devenue une revolution?) Provisional 
government at the Hotel de Ville (Dupont de I Eure, Lamartine, 
Ledru Rollin, Marie, Cremieux, Arago, Gamier-Pages, the elder). 
Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the 
bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a 
commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress) with 
a view to the " organization of labor," but accomplished nothing prac- 
tical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution 
for the new democratic republic. Establishment of costly public 
workshops (ateliers, nationaux) and recognition of the " right to work." * 
Establishment of the garde mobile. 

1848-1851 (1852). France (for the second time) a repub- 
lic. 
June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of June) in Paris in con- 
sequence of the closing of the ateliers. Bloody fights in the 

1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished 
his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, 
were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their pro- 
jector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times, p. 113, where 
authorities are quoted. 



A. D. France. 531 

streets. Murder of archbishop Affre and of general Bre'a. General 
Cavaignac clothed with dictatorial power. The continued efforts of 
the troops and the national guard subdued the insurrection of the 
laborers. Nov. 4, constitution of 1848. 
Dec. 20. Proclamation of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as president 

of the republic (5,327,345 to 1,879,298 votes). 
1849, Apr.-Aug. Expedition to Rome. 

Legislative assembly (one house) with a monarchical majority. 
Death of Louis Philippe at Claremont (1850, Aug. 26). 

1851, Dec. 2. Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who, in 
complicity with St. Arnaud, Maupas, Moray, etc., caused the 

leaders of the republicans and Orleanists (Cavaignac, Charras, Chan- 
gamier, Lamoriciere, Bedeau, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and others) to be 
surprised in their dwellings at night and imprisoned, dissolved the 
(second) national assembly (1849-1851), annulled the constitution 
which he had sworn to defend, crushed (with some shedding of blood) 
the revolt which broke out in the streets of Paris on Dec. 3 and 4 
in consequence of these measures, and summoned the whole people to 
a general election (plebiscite) . This resulted in the election of 
Dec. 20, 21. Louis Napoleon as president for ten years 

by a majority, it was asserted, of more than six million votes. 
The president was clothed with monarchical power, and permitted to 
issue a constitution. By a decree of Jan. 9, 1852, the president arbi- 
trarily banished his most important opponents ; by a decree of Jan. 
14 he established a constitution like that of the first empire (senat t 
corps legislatif, see p. 464). A third decree confiscated the appanages 
of the house of Orleans, and compelled the members of this house to 
sell their whole private property in land in France within a year. 
Freedom of the press restricted. 

1852, Dec. 2-1870. Napoleon III., emperor of the 
French. Proclaimed by a senatus consultum, Nov. 7, and rati- 
fied by a plebiscite (Nov. 21, 22), with 7,824,189 votes against 253,145. 
Napoleon recognized by all European powers. Assertions of peace- 
ful intentions with regard to Europe, particularly in an address at 
Bordeaux ("V Empire c'est la paix"). Napoleon III. married (Jan. 
29, 1853) the Spaniard Eugenie Montijo, countess of Teba. Birth of 
the prince imperial, 1856, Mar. 16. 

1854-1856. Crimean war (p. 499) ended by the 

1856, May 30. Peace of Paris (p. 501). The empire at its height 

of power and respect. 

1857, French expedition to China (p. 501). 

1858, Jan. 14. Orsini's attempt upon the life of Napoleon III. 

Bombs. Orsini, under sentence of death, urged Napoleon to 
undertake the liberation of Italy (Orsini's " Testament," published in 
the Moniteur). Loi de surete 'generate, allowing the government to ar- 
rest and banish, in certain cases, without trial (Feb. 19). Meeting of 
Napoleon III. and the Sardinian minister Cavour. Marriage of the 
prince Napoleon Bonaparte (geneal. table, p. 466) with ClotUdet 
daughter of Victor Emmanuel. 



532 Modern History. A. D. 

1859. Austro-Sardinian war (p. 502). 

1860. Nov. 24; Decree allowing the address to the throne, and cre- 

ating ministers without portfolios. 

1861. Debates permitted to be inserted in full in the Journal Officiel 
1861-1867. Mexican expedition (p. 503). 

1867. Great Exposition at Paris. 

1867. Luxembourg question (p. 511). 

1867. Expedition to Rome (p. 511). 

1869, May. New elections ; for the first time during the second em- 

pire active participation of the parties and a large vote. The 
government received a good majority. In Paris and Lyons, victory 
of the ultra-radical party. 

1870, Jan. 2. Ministry Ollivier. Repeal of the hi de surete. Al- 

teration of the constitution by senatus consultum and plebiscite, 
Apr. 20, May 8. (5,679,000 majority for the government, 
large vote of no in the army.) 
1870-1871. Franco-German -war, p. 513 fol. 

1871 — x. Prance (for the third time) a Republic. 

During the siege of Paris the numerous socialist party had 
made several attempts to seize the supreme power, which had been 
frustrated by the troops and the national guard. After the capitula- 
tion the workingmen had, under various pretexts, got possession of 
several hundred cannon, and converted the northeastern part of the 
city (Montmartre and Belleville) almost into fortresses. The attempt 
of general Vinoy, commander of the city, to repossess himself of these 
arms led to a general 

1871,- March 18. Uprising of the Commune (murder of generals" 
Lecomie and Thomas), and, after the defection of seyeral regi- 
ments, to the • 

March 28-May 22. Rule of the. Socialistic Commune 

(Blanqui, Pyat, Flour ens, Delescluze,- Cluseret, Rossel, etc.). 
Seat of the regular government, Versailles. The comite des interna- 
tionalistes held a reign of terror in^Paris. Spoliation of the churches. 
Several million " advances " exacted from the Bank for the payment 
of the armed mob called the National Guard, whose ranks were 
swollen by socialists of all nations. The march upon Versailles ended 
in a shameful retreat, the insurgents being fired upon from Mont 
Valerien. Arrest of archbishop Darboy and other " hostages," after- 
wards murdered. Proclamation resolving France into a number of 
municipal republics. , 

April 6-May 22. Second siege of Paris , w 

by marshal MacMahon, commander of the troops of the na- 
tional assembly, on the south and west sides, the German troops pre- 
serving a strict neutrality in the forts which they occupied on the 
northeast. 

Bombardment of the southern forts, and the city itself, by the Ver- 
. sailles troops from the parallels which the Germans had constructed. 
Meantime socialistic violence in Paris. Destruction of the house of 
Thiers, and overthrow of the Colonne Vendome, May 16, 1871 (re- 
erected 1874). 



a. d. France. 533 

May 21. The Versailles troops entered the city through the Porte 
St. Cloud, of whose unguarded condition they were apprised by a 
Parisian. Bloody contest against barricades (May 21-28) in the 
heart of Paris. The commune caused the principal buildings of Paris 
to be set on fire. (The Tuileries, a part of the Palais Royal, the li- 
brary of the Louvre, the whole of the Hotel de Ville, the palace of the 
Legion of Honor, the building of the ministry of finance, etc., actu- 
ally destroyed.) 

1871, May 28. Bloody suppression of the insurrection ; executions 
eh masse j 40,000 or 50,000 socialists captured, or afterwards 
arrested. The leaders- court-martialed, many shot, many trans- 
ported to New Caledonia. 
1871, Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the republic for the 

session of the national assembly. 
May 10. Definitive treaty of Frankfort (p. 520). 
1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, in England. 
May 24. Thiers forced to resign by a parliamentary coalition of the 
monarchical parties (Legitimists, Orleanists, Bonapartists). Mar- 
shal MacMahon elected president by the national assembly. 
Nov. 19. After the attempt at a restoration of the monarchy under 
Henry V. (count of Chambord) had failed, marshal Mac- 
Mahon was entrusted with the regency for seven years (se*>- 
tennat) under the title " President of the Republic." 
1873, Oct.-Dee. Trial of Bazaine in the Trianon at Versailles before 
a court-martial, the duke of Aumale (fourth son of Louis Phi- 
lippe') presiding. Bazaine was condemned to degradation and death, 
but the sentence was remitted to twenty years' imprisonment. Ba- 
zaine conveyed to the island of Ste. 'Marguerite^ near Cannes, whence 
he escaped in the summer of 1874. 

1875, Feb. After a long struggle between the parties in the 
national assembly a republican constitution was finally agreed 
upon. 
The legislative power was exercised by two chambers : the 
chamber of deputies, which was elected by direct elections and 
manhood suffrage for four years, and the senate (300 senators : 75 
for life, elected by the national assembly, and afterwards by the sen- 
ate itself ; and 225 elected for nine years by electoral colleges, com- 
posed of deputies,, councils of the departments and districts, and dele- 
gates of the communes). The executive power was entrusted to a 
president, who, after the expiration of the septennat (above), was 
to be elected by the senate and chamber of deputies united in a na- 
tional assembly for this purpose, for seven years, and at the expira- 
tion of his term of office should be again eligible. The president;, 
who governed by a responsible ministry, exercised almost all the 
rights of a constitutional monarchy, but could be impeached by the 
chamber of deputies before the senate for high treason. 
1875, Dec. After the adoption of a new electoral law (scrutin 1 d'ar- 

1 By the scrutin a" 1 arrondissement, the vomers in each district voted for one 
delegate only ; by the scrutin de liste (favored by Gambetta), the voters of each 
department voted for the whole list of delegates from that department. — Mih> 
LEE, Political History of Recent Times. 



534 Modern History. A. d. 

rondissement), the national assembly, which had been in ses- 
sion since 1871, separated. 

1876, Jan., Feb. The new elections resulted in a senate composed 
half of republicans and half of the three monarchical parties, 
while in the chamber of deputies the republicans had a de- 
cisive majority. Dufaure ministry (March), Simon ministry 
(Dec). 

1877, May 16. Simon ministry displaced by the arbitrary act of 
MacMahon ("coup d'etat"). Broglie ministry. Protest of 
363 members of the lower house against the action of the pres- 
ident. 

Sept. 4. Death of Thiers (1797-1877). 

1877, Oct. New elections. Maintenance of the republic. In spite 

of the return of a republican majority, MacMahon formed a 
royalist ministry (Rochebouet). As the house refused to deal 
with such a ministry, formation of the ministry Dufaure (re- 
publican). 

1878, International Exhibition. 

1879, Jan. 16. Pardon of over 2,000 communists. 

1879, Jan. 30. MacMahon, involved in inextricable conflict with the 
chamber of deputies, resigned his office, and was succeeded by 
GrSvy. 
1879-1887. Jules Gre"vy president of the republic. Gam- 
betta succeeded him as speaker of the house. Ministry of 
Waddington. Amnesty for communists. Removal of the legislature 
from Versailles to Paris. Secularization of education ; debate and 
agitation over the bill introduced by Jules Ferry, minister of public 
instruction, limiting the influence of religious orders in education 
(§ 7 : total exclusion of unauthorized religious orders from giving in- 
struction). Ministry of Freycinet (1879, Dec). 

1879, June 1. Death of prince Louis Napoleon in South Africa. In 

spite of the nomination in his will of prince Victor, son of 
Jerome (son of the king of Westphalia), the latter (" Plon- 
Plon ") was generally recognized by the Bonapartists. 

1880, Mar. 30. Proclamation disbanding the order of Jesuits. 
June. General amnesty for convicted communists. (Rochefort.) 
Sept. 19. Ministry of Jules Perry. 

Nov. Expulsion of unauthorized orders from their religious houses. 

1881, Expedition to Tunis, ostensibly to punish marauding border 
tribes, and to uphold the claims of the Societe Marseillaise to 
certain lands in Tunis, resulting in an attempt to establish a 
protectorate over Tunis. Complications with Great Britain, 
Italy, Spain. 

Nov. 13. Ministry of Gambetta (Foreign Affairs) ; M. Paul Bert, 
minister of public worship. 

1882, Jan. 30. Ministry of M. Freycinet (Foreign Affairs) ; Leon 

Say (Finance) ; Jules Ferry (Public Instruction). Gambetta, 
having been defeated on a motion to adopt the scrutin de liste, 
had resigned Jan 27. 
Jan. Failure of the Union Generate (founded 1881). 



a. D. Great Britain. 535 

July 29. Resignation of the ministry Freycinet after defeat upon 
a question of supplies for protecting the Suez canal. Min- 
istry Dueler c (Gambettist). 
French claims upon Madagascar, especially to a protectorate over 
the northwest coast, opposed by the native Hovas, and dissussed be- 
tween France and England. 

The French protectorate over Annam (1874) being threatened by 
the presence of Taiping refugees (" Black Flags," p. 462) in Ton- 
quin, the government resolved upon energetic measures for the as- 
sertion of the rights of France. 
Dec. 31. Death of Leon Gambetta (b. 1838, Oct. 30). {Seep. 573.) 

§ 4. GREAT BRITAIN. (See p. 44$.) 

1783-1882. 

1783, Nov. Fox brought forward a bill to reform the government of 
India, which was thrown out in the lords. The king, thereupon, 
dismissed the coalition ministry, and William Pitt became 

1783, Dec. 26-1801, March 17. First lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer. He introduced an India billy 
which was rejected, and 

1784, March 25. Parliament was dissolved. 

May 18. The Fifth parliament of George III. (XVI.) 
Aug. 13. Pitt's India bill became law (p. 442). 

1787, The first convicts sent to Australia {Botany Bay). 

1788, Oct. 12. The king became insane. Fox proposed that the 

Prince of Wales should assume the regency as of right. 
Pitt, though admitting the prince's claims, insisted that the 
legislature had the right to make the appointment. Pending 

1789, Feb. the discussion the king recovered. 

1791, Representative institutions granted Canada. 

1792, June. Fox's libel bill, which gave the jury power to render 

a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon the whole matter 
in issue, received the royal assent. 

1793, Jan. Alien bill. Traitorous correspondence bill. 

1793, Feb. 1. The French republic declared war against Great 

Britain, etc. (p. 453). 

1794. Spread of revolutionary principles. Suspension of the habeas 
corpus act. 

May. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thehvall, all of whom, 
Oct.-Dec. through the efforts of Erskine, were acquitted. 

1794, Nov. Treaty with the United States {Jay's treaty, p. 548). 

1795, July-Nov. Holland having joined the French against Eng- 

land, the latter seized the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and 
other possessions of the Dutch in the East. 

1796, Sept. 17. Sixth parliament of George III. (XVII.) 
Oct. 11. Spain declared war against England (p. 458). 

1797, Feb. 27. Bank of England stopped specie payments. 
1797, April 15. A mutiny broke out in the fleet at Spithead (off 

Portsmouth). The demands of the sailors, which were rea- 



536 Modern History. A. D. 

May 1?. sonable, were granted and the fleet put to sea. Another 

and more violent mutiny broke out at the 
May 22. Nore (mouth of the Thames), which was finally put down 
June 30. by force and the ringleader hanged. 

1797, Oct. 11. Victory of Camperdown (Duncan) puts an end to 

the danger of immediate invasion. 

1798, Apr. 20. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 
Aug. 1. Battle of the Nile (p. 460). 

1799, Failure of the expedition to the Netherlands (p. 461). 

1800, Dec. 16. Armed neutrality of 1780 revived (p. 412). 

The United Irishmen, an association of malcontents, mainly 
Protestants, was formed in 1791 to secure the entire separation 
of Ireland from England. The French sent more than one 
expedition to their aid ; of these the most formidable, under 

1796, Dec. Hoche, was scattered by a storm, while a smaller one 

1798, Sept. 8. was defeated at Ballinamuck. 

1798, June 21. The United Irishmen were beaten at Vinegar Hill, 

1799. and the insurrection put down with cruel severities. These 
events led to the 

1801, Jan. 1. Legislative Union of Great Britain with 
Ireland under the name of the United Kingdom. The act 
of union provided, among other things, that there should be 
one imperial parliament, to which Ireland should send four 
spiritual lords, sitting by rotation of sessions ; twenty-eight tem- 
poral peers, elected for life by the Irish peerage ; and one hun- 
dred members of the commons j and that the churches of the 
two countries should be united into one protestant episcopal 
church. 

Mr. Pitt proposed to bring in a bill making certain concessions 
to the Roman catholics. The king being persuaded that such 
concessions would be a breach of the coronation oath refused 

1801, Feb. 3. his consent, and Mr. Pitt resigned. 

Mar. 17-1804, May 15. Addington administration. Lord Eldon y 

lord chancellor. 
Apr. 2. Battle of Copenhagen (Nelson). Convention between Eng- 
June 17. land and Russia. End of the second armed neutrality (p. 

463). 
Apr. 19. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 

1802, Nov. 16. Seventh parliament of George III. (2nd impe- 

rial). 

1802, Mar. 27. Peace of Amiens (p. 464). 

1803. The English ambassador (lord Whit worth), publicly insulted 
Mar. 13. by Napoleon. 

May. War renewed between England and France (p. 465). 

1803. Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, easily suppressed, but showed 
the deep-seated hostility of the Irish, and led to the suspension 
of the habeas corpus act in Ireland. 

1804. May 10-1806, Jan. 23. Pitt's second ministry. 

1805. Third coalition against France (p. 467). 
Oct. 21. Trafalgar (Nelson, p. 467). 



A. d. Great Britain. 537 

1806, Jan. 23. Death of Pitt. 

1806, Feb. 10.-1807, March 31. All the Talents : Lord Grenville, 

prime minister ; Charles James Fox, foreign secretary, f Sept. 

13 ; lord Erskine, lord chancellor ; lord Howick (afterwards 

earl Grey), first lord of the admiralty. 
Nov. 21. Berlin Decree (p. 469). 
Dec. 15. Eighth (3d imperial) parliament of George III. 

1807, March 23. Abolition of the slave trade in the British 
dominions. 

The ministry went out on the catholic question, and were suc- 
ceeded by the 

1807, Mar. 31.-1809, Oct. 29. duke of Portland, first lord of the 
treasury ; Canning and Castlereagh, home and foreign secre- 
taries ; Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. 
(George Canning, b. 1770, entered parliament 1793, under sec- 
retary 1796, f 1827). (Castlereagh, afterwards marquis of 
Londonderry, b. 1769, f 1822.) 

June 22. Ninth (4th imperial) parliament of George III. 

July 7-9. Treaty of Tilsit (p. 469). 

Sept. 7. Second bombardment of Copenhagen (p. 470). 

Jan.-Nov. Orders in Council which declared France, and all 
countries under her control, to be in a state of blockade. 

1807, Nov. 8. Russia declared war against England. 

Dec. 17. Milan decree, a supplement to the Berlin decree (p. 469). 

1808, Aug. Convention of Cintra (p. 471). 

1808. The failure of the Walcheren expedition sent to destroy 
July-Nov. the docks and shipping at Antwerp, caused a rupture be- 
tween Castlereagh and Canning, both of whom resigned. 

1809. Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769, entered the army 1787 ; As- 
May. saye 1803 ; entered parliament 1806 ; commanded in the 

Peninsular War. Commander-in-chief 1842, f 1852), after- 
wards duke of Wellington, enters Spain, and the 

1808-1814. Peninsular war was fairly begun (p. 471). 

1809, Oct. 29. Death of the duke of Portland. 

1809, Dec. 6-1812, May 11. Mr. Perceval first lord of the treasury. 

1810, Oct. and Nov. Lines of Torres Vedras (p. 473). 
Nov. The king became hopelessly insane, and 

1811, Feb. 5. The Prince of Wales was appointed, re- 

gent. 
Nov. The breaking of machinery by the Luddites became so fre- 
quent that frame breaking was made a capital offense. 

1812, May 11. Assassination of Perceval by Bellingham. 

1812, June 8-1827, Apr. 24. Liverpool ministry : Castlereagh, 
foreign secretary. 

1812, June 18. War with the United States ended bv the treaty of 

Ghent, 1814, Dec. 24 (p. 551). 
Nov. 24. Tenth (5th imperial) parliament of George III. 

1813, June 21. Vittoria (p. 479). 

1814, May 30. Peace of Paris followed by 

1815, March 25. Treaty of Vienna. England gained Cape of 



538 



Modern History. 



A. D. 



Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, Malta, Tobago, St. Lucia, 
and Mauritius. Hanover became a separate kingdom, with 
George III. first king, and descent to heirs male (p. 491). 

1815, June 15. Waterloo (p. 484). 

The English national debt had grown from less than 250 mill- 
ion pounds in 1793 to over 850 millions ; the laboring classes found 
it difficult to obtain the bare necessaries of life. Consequently riots 
took place in the agricultural districts, while the Luddites broke out 
with fresh vehemence. Incited by the "Weekly Political Register 
( William Cobbett, 1762-1835), the cry of parliamentary reform was 
raised, and Hampden clubs were formed throughout the country. 

1816, Mar. 3. The habeas corpus act was suspended. 

Mar. 10. The Blanket meeting at Manchester broken up by the 
military; lord Sidmouth's (Addington) circular letter. 

Dec. Acquittal of Hone. 

1816, July. Dey of Algiers compelled to abolish christian slavery. 

1819, Jan. 14. Eleventh (6th imperial) parliament of George 
III. 

1819, Aug. 16. A meeting of the Radicals at St. Peter's Fields, Man- 

chester, dispersed by the military with bloodshed ; hence called 
the Manchester Massacre, or Peterloo. In consequence of 
these disturbances, the Six Acts, strengthening the hands of 
government, were passed. 

1820, Jan. 29. Death of George III. Chief descendants: — 



George IH. = Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 



George IV., 

1820-1830. 
t without issue. 



William IV., 

1830-1837. 
+ without issue. 



Frederic, 

d. of York. 

1 1827, 

without issue. 



Edward, 
I. of Kent. 

t 1820. 



Albert of =f= Victoria, 
Saxe-Coburg- I 1 1901. 
Gotha. +1861. | 



Ernest, 
d. of Cum- 
berland; k. 
of Hanover. 
1837-1851. 



Adolphus, 
of Cambridge. 

+ 1850. 



Victoria, 
m. Ger- 
man Em- 
peror. 
+ 1901. 



Edward VII. Alice, Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, 
m. Alexandra m. gr. d. of Edin- m. pr. of m. mar- d. of 
d. ofk. of d.of burgh, + 1900, Schleswig- quis of Con- 
Denmark. Hesse, as d. of Holstein. Lome, naught. 

I + 1878. Saxe-Coburg- 

I Gotha. 



Leopold, 
d. of Al- 
bany, 
+ 1884. 



Beatrice, 

m. pr. 
Henry of 
Batten- 
berg. 



Albert Victor, George, Louise, 

d. of Clarence, Prince of Wales, m. d. of 
+ 1892. m. Mary of Teck, Fife, 

g. g. d. of 
George III. 



Victoria. 



Maud, 
m. Charles, 
pr. of Den- 
mark. 



Edward Alb«rt. 



Victoria. Henry. 



George. 



1820-1830. George IV. (prince regent since 1811). 

1820, Apr. 21. First (7th imperial) parliament of George IV. 

1820. Cato street conspiracy for assassinating the king's minis- 
ters discovered. 

May 1. The leader, Thistlewood, and four accomplices executed. ^ 

1820, Aug.-Nov. The king, while prince of Wales, had been, in a 
manner, forced to marry his cousin. The marriage was an 

unhappy one, and not long after his accession ministers brought for- 



A. d. Great Britain. 539 

ward a bill of pains and penalties to degrade and divorce the queen 
on charges of misconduct. In the trial of queen Caroline which 
followed, Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham and Mr. (afterwards lord) 
Denman so shook the evidence against her, on the cross-examination 
(1821, July 18), that the bill was abandoned. She was, however, ex- 
cluded from the coronation, and not long after died. 

1821. May. Bank of England resumed specie payments (p. 535). 

1822. Castlereagh (lord Londonderry) committed suicide, and was 
succeeded at the foreign office by George Canning. Mr. 
Peel home secretary. 

1823. The next year Huskisson became president of the board of 
trade, and Mr. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich) chancellor 
of the exchequer. 

1825, Commercial panic ; modification of the monopoly of the Bank 
of England. 

1826, Nov. 14. Second (8th imperial) parliament of George IV. 

1827, Aug. 8-1828, Jan. 25. Lord Goderich premier. 

1827, Oct. 20. Navarino ; "untoward event " (p. 489). 

1828, Jan. 26-1830, Nov. 22. Duke of Wellington prime min- 

ister. Robert Peel, home secretary (b. 1788 ; M. P. 1809 ; colo- 
nial secretary 1810 ; f 1850). 
1828, Feb. 26. Lord John Russell (b. 1792 ; M. P. 1813 ; earl Rus- 
sell 1861 ; f 1878) moved the repeal of the corporation 
and test acts (p. 380), which was carried (May). 
A declaration containing the words " on the true faith of a 
christian " was substituted for the sacramental test, thus ad- 
mitting protestant dissenters to office. 

1828, July 15. The restrictions on the importation of breadstuffs 

were modified by the adoption of the sliding scale. 
The duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel became convinced of 
the necessity of catholic emancipation. 

1829, April 13. The catholic relief act substituted a new form of 

oath for the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjuration, and 
there were now no offices from which catholics were excluded, ex- 
cept those of regent, lord chancellor of England and Ireland, and vice- 
roy of Ireland. The franchise in Ireland was raised from 40s. to 10/., 
and certain regulations were made respecting the exercise of the 
Roman catholic religion. 

1830, June 26. Death of George IV. 

1830-1837- William IV. 

1830, Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool rail- 
way (Rocket locomotive), f of Huskisson. 
1830, Oct. 26. First (9th imperial) parliament of William IV. 

When parliament opened earl Grey declared that, in bis opin- 
ion, the only way to avert political convulsions was by a reform in 
parliament. The duke of Wellington expressed himself as opposed to 
reform, and being defeated on a minor question resigned Nov. 16. 
1830, Nov. 24-1834, July 18. Earl Grey, prime minister. Lord 
Althorp, chancellor of exchequer ; lord Brougham, lord chan- 
cellor ; lord John Russell, paymaster-general of the forces ; and 
lord Melbourne, home secretary. 



540 Modern History. A. D. 

1831, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced his reform bill. It 

soon became apparent that there was no prospect of passing 

Apr. 22. the bill, and parliament was cli3solved. 

June 14. Second (10th imperial) parliament of "William IV. 
The reform bill again introduced; passed the commons Sept. 
21, but was thrown out by the lords, and riots ensued through- 
out the country. 

1832, Mar. 19. The reform bill, with some alterations, was again 

passed by the commons. In the lords an amendment was car- 
ried against ministers, who resigned May 7, but resumed office May 
18, the king having consented to create a sufficient number of new 
peers to secure the passage of the bill ; but this proved unnecessary, 
as many tory peers refrained from voting, and the bill received the 
royal assent June 7. 

1832. By this, the First Reform Act, 143 boroughs lost one 
or both members, and the seats thus obtained were given to 

several large towns (Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), to the larger coun- 
ties, and to new boroughs. At the same time the franchise was ex- 
tended. The Scotch reform act, July 17; the Irish reform act, Aug. 7. 

1833, Jan. 29. Third (11th imperial) parliament of William IV. 
Apr. 2. The Irish coercion act. 

In August the bill for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British empire was passed. The sum of 20,000,000^. was 
voted to the slave-owners. 

1833. Renewal of the charter of the Bank of England; and of the East 
India Company for twenty years, but the trade with China 
was thrown open (p. 561). 

1834. The question of an extension of the Irish coercion act led to 
the resignation of earl Grey. 

1834, July 16-Nov. 14. Lord Melbourne became premier. Lord 
Althorp, lord John Russell, and lord Brougham retained their 
places. 

1834. Poor law amendment act. Local boards abolished in favor 

Aug. of a central board of commissioners. Poor law unions took the 
place of work-houses, and the system of out-door relief was in a 
great measure reformed. 

Nov. The king dismissed the ministry, and the duke of Welling- 
ton took control of affairs until sir Robert Peel could be 
summoned from Rome. 

1834, Dec. 8-1835, Apr. 18. Peel's first administration. {Wel- 
lington, foreign secretary.) The majority in the commons 

1834, Dec. 30. was against ministers, parliament was dissolved, and 

Peel issued the Tamworth manifesto. 

1835, Feb. 19. Fourth (12th imperial) parliament of William 

IV. The conservatives, as the supporters of Peel termed them- 
Apr. selves, being in a minority in the commons, ministers resigned. 
1835, Apr. 18-1841, Sept. 3. Second Melbourne ministry. 

Palmerston, foreign secretary (b. 1784 ; M. P. 1807 ; f Oct. 
18, 1865); lord John Russell, home secretary; viscount Howick t 
secretary of war, — succeeded in 1839 by T. B. Macaulay 
(b. 1800 ; M. P. 1830 ; raised to the peerage 1857 ; f 1859). 



A. d. Great Britain. 541 

1835, Sept. Reform of municipal corporations act, London not 

included. 

1836, Commutation of tithes act. 

1837, June 20. Death of William IV. {See p. 542.) 

The British in India. (Seep. 444-) 

1786-1793. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general. 

1792. War with Tipu Sultan, ended by the cession of one half of 
Mysore to the English and allies. 

1793. Capture of Pondicherri, sir John Shore (afterwards lord 
Teignmouth), governor-general, succeeded by 

1798-1805. lord Mornington (afterwards marquis of Wellesley). 

1799. Tipu Sultan, trusting in the promises of Bonaparte, again 
took up arms, was killed, and his dominions were divided be- 
tween the English and the Nizam. 

1802. Holkar, one of the Mahrattd chiefs, drove the Peshwa from 
Poona. By the treaty of Bassein the English agreed to assist 
the Peshwa provided he would surrender his independence, 
and maintain a body of European troops (the subsidiary policy). 
Sindhia and the Raja of Nagpur united with Holkar against 
the English. The latter under sir Arthur Wellesley (after- 
wards duke of Wellington), brother of the governor-general, 

1803. gained the battles of Assaye, Sept. 3, and Argaum, Nov. 
29, while another army under general (afterwards lord) Lake 
won the battle of Laswari, Nov. 1, and captured Delhi. The 
Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, by treaties, surrendered much 

1804. territory to the English. In the next year Holkar was de- 
feated by Lake at Furrukdbad, and again near Bhartpur 1805, 
and made peace with the English 1806, Jan. 7. 

1805. July-Oct. Lord Cornwallis again governor-general; f Oct. ; 

and was succeeded by 
1805-1807. sir G. Barlow. 

1806. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Vellore. 
1807-1813. Lord Minto, governor-general. 

1809. Mutiny of the European officers at Seringapatam. 

1813-1823. Lord Moira (afterwards marquis of Hastings), gov- 
ernor-general. 

1814-1815. War with the Gurkhas of Nepal. 

1817. Pindari war. 

1817-1818. Last Mahratta war. The dominions of the Peshwa 
were annexed and the Raja of Nagpur was put under British 
guardianship, while the states of Rajputana placed themselves 
under British protection. 

1823-1828. Lord Amherst, governor-general. 

1824—1826. First Burmese war, English acquire Assam, etc. 

1828-1835. Lord William Bentinck, governor-general. Financial 
reforms ; abolition of sati (suttee) or widow-burning ; sup- 
pression of the thagi (thugs) or hereditary assassins. 

1833. Company's charter renewed for twenty years, but the trade 
was thrown open, and Europeans allowed to settle in the coun- 



542 Modern History. A. D. 

try. A legal member added to the governor's council, and a 
commission appointed to revise and codify the laws. Macau- 
lay, first legal member, and president of the commission. The 
only annexation of this time was that of Coorg. 
1835-1836. Short administration of sir Charles (afterwards 
lord) Metcalfe, memorable for giving entire freedom to the 
press. (See p. 546.) 

Great Britain. (See p. 541.) 

1837-1901. Victoria (only child of the late duke of Kent). 
Separation of Hanover from Great Britain • duke of Cumber- 
land, the eldest surviving son of George III., became king. 

1837, Nov. 15. First (13th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

1837. Rebellion in Canada. Burning of the American steamer Car- 
oline. The rebels finally reduced to obedience in 1839. The 
two provinces, upper and lower Canada, were united in 
1840, and in 1847 responsible government was introduced into 
the colony. 

1838, Aug. Meeting of working people near Birmingham. A na- 

tional petition or peoples' charter was drawn up. The 
petitioners or chartists demanded, 1. annual parliaments ; 2. 
universal (manhood) suffrage ; 3. vote by ballot ; 4. abolition 
of the property qualification of members of parliament ; and 5. 
payment for their services. To these " five points " a sixth, that 
of equal electoral districts, was afterwards added. The petition 
was presented to the commons, 1839, June 14, and its rejection was 
followed by riots which were easily suppressed. 

1838, Sept. The anti-corn law league formed at Manchester under 

the leadership of John Bright (b. 1811; M. P. 1843 ; f 1889) 
and Richard Cobden (b. 1804 ; M. P. 1847; f 1865). 

1839, Opium war with China ended by treaty of Nankin, 1842, 
Aug. 29 (p. 561). 

1840, Jan. Penny postage introduced (sir Rowland Hill). 

Feb. 10. The queen married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Cobwg and 
Gotha. 

1841, Aug. 19. Second (14th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

1841, Sept. 6-1846, June 29. Peel's second administration. 
Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office ; earl Ripon, 
board of trade, succeeded in 1843 by W. E. Gladstone (b. 
1809 ; M. P. 1832 ; f 1898). 

1842. Second sliding scale adopted ; and the duties on over 700 
articles either removed or reduced, the deficiency so created bet- 
ing made up by an income tax (June 22). 

1844. Charter of the Bank of England renewed (Peel act). The 
issue department established, weekly returns to be published ; 
and circulation limited to 14,000,000^ 
1846. Total repeal of the corn laws. 

The sliding scale abolished ; the duty on wheat imported at or 
above 53s. per quarter to be 4s. per quarter until 1849, Feb. 1, after 
that time to be an uniform Is. per quarter on all kinds of grain im- 
ported into the United Kingdom ; this Is. duty was repealed in 1869. 



A. d. Great Britain. 543 

1846, June. Settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with the United 
States (p. 554). 

1846, July 6-1852, Feb. 23. Ministry of lord John Russell ; lord 
Palmer ston, foreign secretary ; Macaulay, paymaster gen- 
eral. 

1846. Failure of the potato crop in Ireland caused a famine 1846 
and 1847. Population of Ireland 1841, 8,222,664. 1851, 
6,633,982. 

1847. Commercial panic in England. 

1847, Nov. 18. Third (15th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
This distress coupled with the excitement produced by the rev- 

1848. olutions of 1848 (p. 492) roused rebellion in Ireland, which 
was easily suppressed, and its leaders Smith O'Brien and Mit- 

1848, April 10. chell transported ; while in England the chartists 

held a monster meeting on Kennington common, and presented 
a petition to parliament. 

1849, June. Repeal of the navigation laws. Encumbered estates 
July, act (Ireland). 

1850, Sept. 30. Papal bull establishing a Roman catholic hie- 
rarchy in England. 

1851, July. Ecclesiastical titles bill, imposing a fine of 100J. on all 

who should endeavor to carry this papal bull into effect, passed 
(never executed). 
1851. Telegraphic communication between Prance and Eng- 
land. 

1851. Great exhibition of the industries of all nations in Hyde Park, 
London. 

1852, Feb. 27-Dec. 18. Earl Derby's first ministry, Disraeli, 
chancellor of exchequer (b. 1805 ; " Vivian Grey " 1825 ; 
M. P. 1837 ; earl of Beaconsfield, 1876 ; f 1881). 

Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. 

1852, Nov. 4. Fourth (16th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

1852, Dec. 28-1855, Feb. 5. Aberdeen administration. W. E. 
Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer; lord Palmerston, home 
secretary ; lord John Russell, foreign secretary. 
End of Caffir war in South Africa. 

Oct. 30. The British fleet entered the Bosphorus. 

1853-1856. Crimean war (p. 499). 

1854, June 5. Reciprocity treaty with the United States concluded 

(p. 555) ; abrogated 1866. 

1855. The mismanagement with regard to the supply of food and 
clothing for the army in the Crimea and the feeble prosecu- 
tion of the war rendered the administration unpopular, and 

1855, Jan. 30. lord Aberdeen resigned. 

1855, Feb. 5-1858, Feb. 22. Palmerston premier. Gladstone, 
chancellor of the exchequer, res. Feb. 22. 

Feb. 19. Bread riots at Liverpool. 

1856, Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean war (p. 501). "War 
Mar. 30. with China. Treaty of Tien-tsin, June 26, 1859. Peace 

ofPekin Aug. 24, 1860 (p. 562). 

1857, Apr. 30. Fifth (17th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 



544 Modern History. A. d. 

Nov. 12. Great commercial panic. Suspension of the bank charter 

act of 1844. 
In consequence of the attempted assassination of Napoleon III. 

by Orsini, lord Palmerston introduced the conspiracy to murder 

bill. On its rejection in the commons the ministry resigned, 

and the 
1858, Feb. 22-1859, June 11. Second Derby ministry took office ; 

Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 
1858, June. Property qualification of members of parliament 

abolished. 
July. Jews admitted to parliament. 

Act for the better government of India. 
Aug. 5. The successful laying of the first Atlantic cable (ceased 

working Sept. 4). 
Aug. 26. Treaty with the tycoon (shogun) of Japan (p. 563). 

1858. The queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India. 
The government of the East India company ceased. 

The ministry, defeated on a reform bill introduced by Disraeli, 
Apr. 13. dissolved parliament, but being in a minority in the 

1859, May 31. Sixth (18th imperial) parliament of Victoria, 
resigned, and the 

1859, June 13-1865, Nov. 6. Second Palmerston ministry came 

in. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Russell 
(formerly lord John), foreign secretary ; lord Campbell, lord 
chancellor. 

1860, Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and France. 
July-Oct. The prince of Wales visits the United States and Can- 
ada. 

1861, July 27. Rupture of diplomatic relations with Mexico. 

Nov. 8. Mason and Slidell taken from the British mail steamer 

Trent (p. 557). 
Dec. 23. Death of the prince consort. 

1862, Second Exhibition of the industry of all nations opened in 
May 1. London. 

1863, The Maori (native) war in New Zealand, ended in 1869. 

1864, The Schleswig-Holstein question (p. 505). 

June. Final cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece (p. 483). 
July. The Thames embankment begun. 

1865, June. Commencement of the Cattle Plague. 
Oct. Insurrection in Jamaica. 

Oct. 18. Death of lord Palmerston. 

1865, Nov. 6-1866, June 26. Earl Russell premier. 

1866, Feb. 1. Seventh (19th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 
Feb. Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland. 

May. Failure of Overend, Gurney and Co. (liabilities over 19,000,- 

000Z.). Panic in London. 
July Telegraphic communication with America finally established. 

1866, July 6-1868, Feb. 27. Third Derby ministry. Disraeli, 

chancellor of the exchequer. 

1867, Aug. 15. The second reform act, — "a leap in the dark,"—* 

which greatly extended the franchise, received the royal as* 
sent. 



A. B. Great Britain. 545 

1867. The Fenians attempted the seizure of the arsenal at Chester 
(Feb.). Rising in Ireland, easily suppressed. Attempt to 
release Fenians confined in Clerkenwell prison, by exploding 
gunpowder under the walls. 

1867. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were combined 
into one Dominion of Canada, with power to take in new 
provinces. Each province retained its own legislature for 
local affairs. All British America, with the exception of 
Newfoundland, now belongs to this confederation. 

1867. Abyssinia expedition, Magdala. 

1868, Feb. 27-Dec. 3. Lord Derby resigned, and Mr. Disraeli be- 

came premier. The general elections to the new parliament 
were so decidedly in favor of the liberals that the ministry re- 
signed, and 

1868, Dec. 9-1874, Feb. 21. Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 

1868, Dec. 10. Eighth (20th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

July 26. Disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish 
church. A portion of the money so obtained given to the 
Roman catholic college of Maynooth, and another portion ap- 
plied to educational purposes. The royal assent was at the same 
time given to the bankruptcy bill, and to a bill abolishing 
imprisonment for debt. (Debtors' prisons : Fleet, Marshal- 
sea, etc.) 

1868, Oct. 16. Opening of the Suez canal. 

1870. Irish land act provided, among other things, for compen- 
sation to out-going tenants ; for loans to landlords for im- 
provements, and to tenants desirous of purchasing their hold- 
ings (Bright clauses). 
At the same session a system of 

1870. national education was established by law. 

1871. Purchase in the army abolished. 

Treaty of Washington with the United States, by which the 
Alabama claims were settled by 

1872. Arbitration at Geneva and the so-called northwestern boun- 
dary dispute, decided by the emperor of Germany as arbiter 
(p. 560). 

1872. Vote by ballot introduced. 

1873. Ashantee war. Coomassie taken by 

1874. the British, commanded by general Wolseley. 

1874, Feb. 21.-1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Disraeli (1876, Aug., earl of 
Beaconsfield), premier ; sir Stafford Northcote, chancellor of 
the exchequer. 

1874, March 5. Ninth (21st imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

1875. Purchase of Suez canal shares from the khedive of Egypt. 
1875, 1876. Visit of the Prince of Wales to India. The queen pro- 
claimed empress of India. Commercial panic. 

1878, July 13. Treaty of Berlin. British take possession of Cyprus 

July 14 (p. 524). 

1879. Irish land league, supported by Parnell, Dillon i etc* 1879, 
1880, famine in Ireland. 

1879. War with the Zulus (" Jingoism "). 
35 



546 Modern History, A. D. 

1880, Feb. 23. Parliament dissolved. Elections in favor of liberals ; 
resignation of ministers, Apr. 22. 

1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Gladstone, prime minister ; marquis ofHar- 
tington, secretary for India; W. E. Forster, chief secretary for 
Ireland, succeeded by lord F. Cavendish, and he by G. 0. Tre- 
vellyan. John Bright, chancellor of the duchy. 

1880, Apr. 29. Tenth (22d imperial) parliament of Victoria. 

1881, March 3. Irish coercion act. 

Aug. 22. Irish land act provided for a court of commission to try 
differences between landlords and tenants ; and in a measure 
granted the " three F's : " 1. free sale ; 2. fair rents ; 3. fix- 
ity of tenure. 

1882, May 6. Murder of lord Frederick Cavendish and an 

under- secretary in Dublin. 
July 11. Bombardment of Alexandria (Egypt). Resignation of 

John Bright. 
July 14. A new Irish coercion act went into force. 
Sept. Total defeat of Egyptian rebels by the British, commanded by 

sir Garnet Wolseley. Capture of Tel-el-Kebir. (See p. 565.) 

The British in India. (Seep. 542.) 

1836-1842. Lord Auckland, governor-general. 

1839. First Afghan war, occasioned by an attempt to place a ruler 
in Afghanistan who should be subservient to the British. 
Kabul was easily occupied. Dost Muhammad taken prisoner, 
and Shah Shujd installed. In November, 1841, the Afghans 
rose, and, led by Akbar Khan, drove the British from Kabul. 
Terrible winter retreat to Jalalabad. 

1842-1844. Earl of Ellenborough, governor-general. Two ar- 
mies sent to Afghanistan. Relief of Kandahar and Jalalabad. 
Capture of Kabul. The bazar blown up. Dost Muhammad re* 
placed, and the British withdrawn. 

1844-1848. Sir Henry (afterwards lord) Hardinge, governor- 
general. 

1845. First Sikh war. 

1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie, governor-general. 

1848, 1849. Second Sikh war ended in the annexation of the 
Punjab. 

1852. Second Burmese war. British Burma annexed. 

1856. Annexation of Oudh on the ground of misrule. 
1856-1862. Earl Canning, governor-general. 

1857. May 10. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Mirath (Meerut). Rising 

of the Muhammadans at Delhi. Massacre at Cawnpore 
(Nana Sahib), June 27. First relief of Lucknow by Have- 
lock, Sept. 25 ; final deliverance of the garrison by sir Colin 
Campbell, Nov. 16. Siege and capture of Delhi, June-Sept. 
The mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, captured, deposed, and 
banished to Rangoon ; f 1862. End of the mughal empire. 

1858. The government of India transferred to the crown; gov- 
ernor-general to be viceroy. 



A. r>. United States. 547 

1862-1863. Lord Elgin, viceroy ; 1864-1869, lord Lawrence, 

viceroy. Famine in Orissa, 1866 ; in Bundelkhand and Upper 

Hindustan, 1868, 1869. 
1869-1872. Lord Mayo, viceroy. Internal improvements. 
1872-1876. Lord Northbrook, viceroy. Dethronement of the 

Mahrattd Gdekwdr of Baroda. Visit of the prince of Wales to 

India. 
1876-1880. Lord Lytton, viceroy. 

1877, Jan. 1 . The queen proclaimed empress of India. 
1877, 1878. Famine in southern India. 

1878-1881. Second Afghan war. Refusal of Sher Ali to admit a 
British embassy. The Khaibar (Kyber), the Kuram, and the 
Boldn passes occupied by the British troops, f Sher Ali. Abdication 
of his son, Ydkub Khan. Defeat of a brigade of British troops by 
Ayub Khan. Brilliant march of sir F. Roberts from Kabul to Kanda- 
har, and rout of Ayub Khan, 1880, Sept. 1. Abdurrahman Khan, 
the eldest male representative of Dost Muhammad, recognized by the 
British as Amir, and their troops withdrawn from Kabul and Kanda- 
har. 

1880. Marquis of Ripon, viceroy. 

1881. Population of all India 252,541,210, an increase in ten years 
of over twelve millions. (See p. 565) 

§ 5. UNITED STATES. (Seep. 433.) 

1789-1882. 

1789. First congress met at New York, March 4. ' 

1789. George Washington (Virginia), president. John 

Apr. 30. Adams, vice-president. 

Nov. 1. North Carolina accepted the constitution. 

1789. Three executive departments created. Thomas Jefferson 
(b. 1743, f 1825), secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton 
(b. 1757, f 1804), secretary of the treasury ; Henry Knox, sec- 
retary of war. These with the attorney general formed the 
cabinet. A national judiciary was also established. John 
Jay, chief justice of the supreme court. 

1789. First ten amendments (in the nature of a bill of rights) to 
the constitution proposed by congress to the state legislatures, and 
ratified, in the course of two years, by three fourths of the 
states. 

1790, May 29. Rhode Island accepted the constitution. 

1790. The financial affairs of the country were put on a firm basis. 
The seat of government to be at Philadelphia for ten years, and 
after that permanently located on the Potomac, where land 
was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia (District of 
Columbia), and the city of Washington laid out. 

1790-1795. Indian war. Defeat of Harmar 1790 ; St. Clair 1791 ; 
and victory of Wayne 1794. 

1790. Death of Franklin. 

Population 3,921,326 (1st census). National debt Jan. 1, 1791, 
$75,463,476.52. 

1791, Aug. George Hammond, minister from Great Britain, received. 

Vermont admitted (14th state). 



548 Modern History. A. D* 

A national bank (United States bank) chartered for twenty 
1792, Apr. 2. years, and a mint, were established at Philadelphia. 
1792. Two parties now came into prominence : the republican, 

afterwards democratic, led by Jefferson • and the federalist, 

whose leaders were Hamilton and Adams. 

1792. Kentucky admitted (15th state). 
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. 
Washington and Adams reelected. 

1793. France declared war against Great Britain, and sent Genet as 
minister to the United States. He arrived at Charleston in 
April, and proceeded to fit out privateers, etc. 

Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, Apr. 22 ; 
and the next year (1794) the neutrality act was passed. 
Genet appealed from the executive to the people, and, upon the 
demand of the government, was recalled. 

1793. Fugitive slave act, substantially a dead letter until revived 
in 1850. 

1794. Whiskey insurrection in western Pennsylvania. It 
was caused by an internal revenue law of 1791, which laid an 
excise on domestic spirits, and was put down by an army com- 
posed of the militia of Pennsylvania and adjoining states. 

1794. Eleventh amendment, securing the non-suability of states, 
proposed by congress, and declared ratified Jan. 1798. 

1794. Peace purchased from Algiers, and from Tripoli and Tunis 
in the following years. 

1794. The treaty of peace (p. 432) had been fully carried out by 
neither party. Great Britain had not delivered the posts held 

by her on the northern frontier. And she was accused of inciting the 
Indians to hostility, of impressing American seamen, and of capturing 
American trading vessels ; and besides, many slaves had been carried 
away by the British when they evacuated New York. On the other 
side, it was alleged that the provisions of the treaty with regard to 
the collection of debts due to British subjects had not been observed. 
To settle these differences John Jay was sent to England, and a 

3L794, Nov. 19. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation 
(Jay's treaty) was concluded. It provided for the delivery 
of the posts before June, 1796 ; for a commission to decide 
what river was the " St. Croix " (p. 432) ; for compensation in 
certain cases to British subjects and American citizens, to be as- 
certained by commissioners ; for the regulation of trade between 
the two countries ; for the extradition of criminals, etc. The 
treaty met with great opposition; the ratif cations were not ex- 
changed till Oct. 1795 ; and the money necessary to carry it 
out was not voted till 1796 (speech of Fisher Ames). 

1795. Treaty with Spain established the southern boundary of the 
United States, and secured the free navigation of the Missis • 
sippi, with right of deposit at New Orleans. 

1796. Tennessee admitted (16th state). 
Sept. 18. Washington's farewell address. 

1797. Mar. 4. John Adams (Massachusetts), federalist, 2d 
president. 



A. d. United States. §49 

Thomas Jefferson, republican, vice-president. 
1797. Special mission to France. Attempt on the part of the French 

to extort money (X. Y. Z. affair). Pinckney, one of the envoys, 
replied : " Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute." Hostilities 
actually began. Provisional army raised ; Washington, lieutenant- 
general ; navy department organized 1798 ; Constellation captured 
L'Insurgente 1799 ; but when Bonaparte came into power more pacific 
intentions prevailed, and a convention was concluded 1800, Sept. 30. 
1797. The language of the French sympathizers became so violent 

that the alien and sedition laws were passed. They were 
followed by the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, 
in which it was asserted that a state had a right to decide for itself 
how far the national authority should be considered binding. 

1799, Dec. 14. Death of Washington. 

1800, Nov. 22. Congress met in Washington for the first time. 

Population, 5,319,762 (2d census). 

1801, John Marshall, chief justice of the supreme court. In the 
elections of 1800 the republican candidates received a major- 
ity of the votes, but as they had equal numbers the election 
went to the house of representatives, which chose 

1801. Thomas Jefferson (Virginia) 3d president ; and 
Aaron Burr, vice-president. James Madison, secretary of 
state ; Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. 

1801-1802. Repeal of the internal revenue taxes, and of many un- 
popular laws. 1802. Ohio admitted (17th state). 

1803, April 30. The Louisiana Purchase, by which the 
United States acquired : all of its present area between the 
Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, north of the then northern 
boundary of Mexico ; the island on which New Orleans stands ; 
and a claim to Texas, to west Florida, as that portion of the 
present states of Mississippi and Alabama south of 31° north 
latitude was then called, and perhaps even to territory west of 
the Rocky Mountains (p. 554). The price was fifteen mil- 
lions of dollars, and the original area of the United States 
was more than doubled. 

1803, Dec. 12. Twelfth amendment, altering the mode of elect- 
ing president and vice-president, proposed by congress, and de- 
clared ratified 1804, Sept. 25. 

1804-1805. Failure of the impeachment of Chase, a justice of the 
supreme court. 

1804, July. Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 
1801-1805. Tripolitan war. Burning of the frigate Philadelphia 

(Decatur), which had been captured while aground, 1804. 
Capture of Berne. Bombardment of Tripoli. Treaty 1805.. 
No more tribute to be paid by the United States. 

1805, Thomas Jefferson reelected president ; George 
Clinton vice-president. 

1806, April. The British ship Leander fired on an American trad- 

ing sloop, killing John Pierce, the owner. The Leander ordered 
out of the waters of the United States. 



550 Modern History. A. d. 

1806, May 16. The British government issued orders in council, 

declaring the coast of Europe from, the Elbe to Brest to be in 
a partial state of blockade ; Napoleon replied (Nov. 21) by the Ber- 
lin decree (p. 469). Great Britain issued other orders in council 
(Jan. 7 and Nov. 11, 1807), followed (Dec.) by the Milan decree 
(p. 537), which orders and decrees practically put an end to the most 
profitable portion of the commerce of the United States. 

1807, June 22. The frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British 

ship Leopard, and four men claimed as deserters were taken out 
of her by the British. The president by proclamation ordered all 
British ships of war to leave the coast ; reparation was demanded of 
Great Britain, and congress laid an embargo (Jefferson's embargo) 
on all shipping in the ports of the United States (Dec. 22). 

1806. Failure of Miranda's scheme for revolutionizing the Span- 
ish American colonies. 

1807. Trial and acquittal of Aaron Burr, late vice-president, 
for treason. It is said that he had designed seizing New 
Orleans, detaching several states from the union, and invading 
Mexico. 

1807. Robert Fulton made the first successful application of steam 
to navigation, in the steamboat Clermont (engine imported). 

1808. The importation of slaves into the United States prohib- 
ited after Jan. 1, 1808. 

The embargo policy was designed to compel Great Britain and 
France to withdraw their orders and decrees. The further history is 
as follows : — 

1808. Supplementary acts : 1. Jan. 8, coasting and fishing ves- 
sels to give bonds to re-land cargoes in United States. 2. Mar. 

12, boats and vessels of all kinds and land-carriages made subject to 
the embargo [April 17, Bayonne decree directing the seizure of all 
American vessels then in the ports of France]. 3. Apr. 25, coasting 
trac^e forbidden to foreign vessels, and to be exercised by others only 
under the most stringent rules ; enforcing act of 1809 (Jan. 9), by 
which every attempt to avoid the embargo worked the forfeiture of ship, 
boat, or vehicle, and involved a, fine of four times the value of the mer- 
chandise, one half to the informer, and the president was authorized to 
use the army and navy to enforce the embargo. Embargo repealed 
except as to France and England, to take effect 1809, Mar. 15. No 
goods to be imported from those countries after May 20. 

1809. March 4. James Madison (Virginia), democrat, 4th 
president. James Monroe, secretary of state. 

1810. Population 7,239,881 (3d census). 

1810, March 23. Rambouillet decree, ordering the sale of all 

American vessels which had been seized for violating the 

French decrees. 

1810, May 1. Act known as Macon's No. 2 provided that in case 

either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts the 

United States would prohibit trade with the other. Napoleon revoked 

the Berlin and Milan decrees, but not the Rambouillet decree, Aug. 

5, to take effect Nov. 1, as to American vessels. This was considered 

by the president as a sufficient compliance with the condition of 



a. d. United States. 551 

Macon's No. 2, and a proclamation declared the non-importation act 
revived as to Great Britain after Feb. 2, 1811. 

1811, May 16. Engagement between the American frigate Presi- 

dent and the British ship Little Belt. 

1812. Louisiana admitted (18th state). 

1812, Apr. 4. Embargo for ninety days. War declared against 
Great Britain. The orders in council of Jan. and Apr. 1807, 
revoked (June 23). 

1812-1814. War with Great Britain. Events of 1812. 
Unsuccessful invasion of Canada, surrender of Detroit (Aug. 
16), defeat at Queenstown (Oct. 13). On the water, however, the 
American ship Essex (Porter) captured the Alert; the Constitution 
(Hull), the Guerriere ; the Wasp, the Frolic (both taken by the Poic- 
tiers, a British 74) ; the United States (Decatur), the Macedonian • 
and the Constitution (Bainbridge), the Java. In 1813 the Amer- 
icans were defeated at Frenchtown (Jan.) ; gained the battle of Lake 
Erie (Perry) ; but were driven from their posts on the Niagara. The 
English blockaded the Atlantic seaboard, and June 1 the British 
frigate Shannon captured the Chesapeake ; the Pelican, the Argus ; 
but on the other hand the American ship Hornet took the Peacock ; 
the Enterprise, the Boxer. In 1814 there was another attempt to 
invade Canada; the Americans captured Fort Erie and won the 
battles of Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 15), but 
these victories led to nothing. Battle of Lake Champlain won by 
McDonough (Sept. 11). Aug. 24, the British under Ross defeated 
the Americans at Bladensburgh ; entered Washington the next day 
and burnt all the public buildings ; but were repulsed in an at- 
tempt on Baltimore (Sept. 13) ; and with great loss at New Or- 
leans (Dec, Jackson). At sea the American ship Essex (Porter), 
after a successful cruise in the Pacific, was captured by the Phoebe 
and Cherub ; the Peacock captured the Epervier ; the Wasp, the 
Reindeer and Avon. In 1815 the Constitution captured the Cyane 
and Levant ; and the Hornet, the Penguin ; while the President sur- 
rendered to a British squadron. Peace, however, had been made at 
Ghent, December 24, 1814, by a treaty by which none of the ques- 
tions which led to the war were settled, but which provided for com- 
missions to run the boundaries, as determined in previous treaties. 

The eastern states had resisted the embargo, and later had taken 
a very lukewarm interest in the war, and had consequently been left 
to shift for themselves. This dissatisfaction led to the summoning of 
the Hartford convention, 1814, Dec. 15, which adjourned in three 
weeks without accomplishing anything. 

1815. Squadron, under Decatur, sent to the Mediterranean, and a 
treaty negotiated with Algiers. 

1816. The second United States bank chartered for twenty 
years (charter of 1st expired in 1811). Protective tariff. In- 
diana admitted (19th state). 

1817-1825. James Monroe (Virginia), democrat, 5th pres- 
ident. Era of good feeling. J. Q. Adams, secretary of 
state ; W. H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; and John 
C. Calhoun, secretary of war (res. 1817). 



552 Modern History. A. d« 

1817. Mississippi admitted (20th state). 

1817-1818. Seminole war (Jackson). Invasion of Florida, then a 
colony of Spain. Execution of two British subjects. 

1818. Illinois admitted (21st state). 

Pensions granted to the survivors of the revolutionary war, in 
needy circumstances. 

Convention with Great Britain as to the fisheries ; the coun- 
try west of the " Stony [Rocky] Mountains " to be occu- 
pied by the two powers in common for ten years, etc. 

1819. Treaty with Spain. She gave up all claim to west Florida, 
(p. 432) which had been occupied by the United States since 
1810, and ceded east Florida. The United States gave up all 
claim to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five mill- 
ions to its own citizens for claims which they had against Spain. 

1819. Alabama (22d state). Financial crisis. 

1820. Maine (23d state). Population of the United States 9,638,453. 

1820. Missouri compromise, by which it was agreed that 
slavery should be prohibited in the United States west of the 
Mississippi, north of 36° 30 / north latitude, this being the 

1821. southern border of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave 
state (24th state). 

1823, Dec. 2. The president in his annual message enunciated the 
Monroe doctrine : " That the American continents, by 
the free and independent position which they have assumed 
and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects 
for future colonization, by any European power ; " and that the 
extension of the system of the Holy alliance (p. 485) to 
America would not be viewed " in any other light than as the 
manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United 
States." 
Neither of the candidates for president receiving a majority of 
the electoral vote, the house of representatives chose 

1825-1829. John Quincy Adams (b. 1767, f 1848) 
(Massachusetts), democrat, president, although Andrew Jack- 
son had received a plurality in the electoral college ; John C. 
Calhoun (b. 1782, f 1850), vice-president ; Henry Clay (b. 
1777, f 1852), secretary of state. 

1825. The Erie canal was finished ; the first railroad in America (at 
Quincy, Mass.) was completed in 1827, although steam was 
not used on such a road in this country until 1829. 

1826. Failure of the Panama congress, and 1827 of another ap- 
pointed to meet near the city of Mexico. These were at- 
tempts to put the Monroe doctrine into practice. 

1828. Tariff of abominations. 

1829-1837. Andrew Jackson (b. 1767, 1 1845), (Tennes- 
see), democrat, 7th president; John C. Calhoun, vice-president 
(res. 1831); Martin Van Buren (b. 1782, f 1862), secretary of 
state. 
Inauguration of the spoils system ; about 690 office holders 
removed by the president during the first year of his admin* 



A. P. United States. 553 

istration, in contrast with only seventy-four removals by 
all former presidents. The government was now in the hands 
of those who, according to senator Marcy of New York, saw 
" nothing wrong in the rule that to the victor belong the 
spoils of the enemy." 

1829. The merchants of Boston protested against the tariff acts, and 
were followed by the legislatures of South Carolina, Virginia, 
Alabama, and North Carolina. 

1830. Population 12,866,020 (5th census). 

1830, Jan. 27. Speech of Daniel Webster (b. 1782, f 1852), in the 

senate of the United States in reply to colonel Hayne of South 
Carolina, who upheld extreme states-rights views. 

1831. William. Lloyd Garrison established in Boston a paper 
called the Liberator, advocating the immediate and uncondi- 
tional emancipation of the negroes. This led to the organization 
of the abolitionists. 

1831. Convention with France, mutual settlement of claims. France 
to pay the United States 25,003,000 francs, and to be paid 
1,300,000 francs, such sums to be distributed to claimants in 
either country. 

The tariff act of 1832, while containing a reduction of duties, 
retained the protective principle. A convention held in South 
Carolina reported 

1832. A nullification ordinance (Nov. 1832), which de- 
clared that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitu- 
tional " and are null and void, and no law, nor binding upon this state," 
etc. Colonel Hayne was elected governor of South Carolina, and Cal- 
houn took the seat thus vacated in the senate. Dec. 10 president 
Jackson issued the nullification proclamation, in which the doc- 
trine of states-rights was refuted and the national theory set forth ; 
and he declared his intention of executing the laws of the United States. 
This was followed by the nullification message, 1833, Jan. 16. This 
trouble was finally ended by the compromise tariff act, introduced 
into the senate by Henry Clay, 1833, Feb. 12. Both sides claimed 
the victory. 

1835-1842. War with the Seminole Indians. 

1836. Arkansas (25th state). 

1837. Michigan (26th state). 

1837-1841. Martin Van Buren (New York), democrat, 

8th president. 

1837. Financial crisis : causes, removal (1833) of deposits from 
the United States bank to the local banks ; great extension of 
credit, and over-issue of paper money ; contraction of the vol- 
ume of the currency by the (1836, July 11) specie circular, 
which produced a great scarcity of money. 

1837. Rebellion in Canada, burning of the American steamer Car- 
oline by the royalists. McLeod's case. 

1838-1839. The gag resolutions) by which congress declared that 
petitions praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of 

Columbia or against the inter-state slave trade should be tabled without 

being debated, referred, or printed. 



554 Modern History. A. D. 

1840. Independent treasury established ; the national funds to be 
kept in the treasury at Washington and in the sub-treasuries 

established in certain cities, subject to the order of the treasurer. 

1840. Population 17,069,453 (6th census). 
After an exciting contest was elected 

1841-1845. William Henry Harrison (Ohio), whig, 9th 
president, f 1841, Apr., succeeded by John Tyler (b. 1790, 
f 1862) of Virginia, vice-president. Daniel Webster, secretary 
of state (res. 1843). 

1842. The northeastern boundary dispute with Great Britain set- 
tled by the Ashburton treaty. 

1842. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 

1844. Experimental telegraph line between Washington and Balti- 
more built by professor S. F. B. Morse with money appro- 
priated by congress. 

1845. Florida (27th state). 

In 1821 Mexico had separated from Spain, and in 1836 Texas 
declared itself independent of Mexico. Houston with eight hundred 
Texans defeated Santa Anna at the San Jacinto (1836, Apr. 21), and 
drove the Mexicans across the Rio Grande ; and 
1845) March. Texas was annexed to the United States. 
1845-1849. James K. Polk (Tennessee), democrat, 11th 

president ; James Buchanan (b. 1781, f 1868), secretary of 

state. 

1845. Texas (28th state) ; 1846, Iowa (29th state). 

The United States and Great Britain claimed the territory 
west of the Rocky Mountains from the northern boundary of Mexico, 
42° north latitude, to the southern boundary of Alaska, 54° 40' north 
latitude. By the 

1846. Oregon treaty this tract was divided between them, the 49th 
parallel forming the boundary, and the southern portion, which 
fell to the United States, retained the name of Oregon. 

The annexation of Texas led to a 

1846-1848. War with Mexico, 

which was invaded by an army from the north commanded by,. 
Zachary Taylor (b. 1786, f 1850) ; battles of Palo Alto (May 8), 
Resaca (May 9). Surrender of Monterey (Sept. 24), Buena 
Vista (1847, Feb. 22 and 23). In March, 1847, another army 
under general Scott landed near Vera Cruz, which surrendered 
March 29th. He then set out for the city of Mexico, and won 
the battles of Cerro Gordo (April 18), Churubusco (Aug. 20), 
captured the fortress of Chapultepec (Sept. 12 and 13), and en- 
tered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14). On the Pacific the Amer- 
icans had been equally successful, and the war was ended by 
the 

1848, Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 

Mexico gave up all claim to Texas, the Rio Grande to be the 
boundary, and ceded to the United States the provinces of New 
Mexico and Upper California, in all about 522,955 square 
miles, in consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. 



A. d. United States. 555 

1848. "Wisconsin (30th state). 

In 1846 the Wilmot proviso, which provided that slavery 
should not be permitted in whatever territory should be acquired from 
Mexico, was defeated ; but the agitation it occasioned led to the organ- 
ization of 
1848. The Free soil party, the precursor of the present republican 

party. 

1849-1853. Zachary Taylor (Louisiana), whig, 12th presi- 
dent, f July 9, 1850 ; succeeded by Millard Fillmore of New 
York, vice-president. John M. Clayton, secretary of state ; fol- 
lowed by Daniel Webster 1850, July 20, f 1852 ; who was suc- 
ceeded by Edward Everett (b. 1794, f 1865). 

1850. Population 23,191,876 (7th census). The discovery of gold 
in California (1848) had led to the rapid population of that 
territory, and in 1850 it became the 31st state. 

1850, Sept. Clay's compromises provided for the admission of Cal- 
ifornia as a free state ; for the payment to Texas of ten millions 
for her claim to New Mexico ; for the organization of Utah and 
New Mexico as territories without any mention of slavery ; for 
the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; 
and for the rendition of slaves who had escaped to free states, 
this last known as the 

1850. Fugitive Slave Law. 

1850, April 19. Clayton-Bulwer treaty with Great Britain settled 
certain questions with regard to communication between the 
Atlantic and Pacific ; which, owing to the acquisition of Cali- 
fornia, had become of importance to the United States. 

1853-1857. Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), demo- 
crat, 14th president ; William L. Marcy, secretary of state ; 
Jefferson Davis (b. 1808 ; f 1889), secretary of war. 

1853, Dec. 30. Boundary dispute with Mexico settled by the 

Gadsden purchase ; by which the boundary was to be the 
Rio Grande from its mouth to 31° 20' north latitude ; thence due 
west to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich ; thence 
in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river twenty miles below 
the junction of the Gila ; thence up the middle of the Colorado river 
until it intersects the boundary of California as determined by the 
treaty of 1848. The price was ten millions, and the area thus acquired 
was 45,000 square miles. 

1854. Treaty with Japan, which opened that country to commer- 
cial intercourse with the United States, negotiated by commo- 
dore Perry (p. 563). 

1854. Reciprocity treaty with Great Britain secured to the 
Americans the right to the "fisheries ; " and certain articles were 
to be admitted free of duty into the United States and the British 
provinces. This treaty was terminated in 1866 by the United States. 
1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. It provided for the organ- 
ization of two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the 
question of slavery to those who should there settle (squatter sov- 
ereignty), thus repealing in part the Missouri compromise. A 



556 Modern History. A. D. 

struggle immediately ensued between the slave-holders and the aboli- 
tionists as to which party should colonize these territories first. Sack 
of Lawrence by " border ruffians " (1856, May 21) ; battle of Ossawat- 
tomie {John Brown). At last the anti-slavery party proved successful. 

1856. Rise of " Know-Noihingism" or secret opposition to foreign 
influence in national legislation. 

1857-1861. James Buchanan (Pennsylvania), democrat, 
15th president. 

1857. In the Dred Scott case the supreme court decided that un- 
der the constitution neither negro slaves nor their descen- 
dants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States ; 
and added, as a dictum, that the Missouri compromise was unconstitu- 
tional, and that therefore a slave did not become free by being carried 
to a territory where slavery had been prohibited under that compro- 
mise. 

1857. Great commercial distress throughout the country. 

1858. Minnesota (32d state) ; 1859, Oregon (33d state). 

1859. John Brown with a handful of men seized the United 
Oct. 19. States arsenal at Harper's Ferry ; but, after half his men 

were killed, was captured, and hanged December 2d of the 
same year. 

1860. Population of the United States 31,443,332 (8th census). 
1860, Nov. Abraham Lincoln (b. 1809, f 1865) of Illinois, re- 
publican, received the electoral votes of all the free states, — 

New Jersey excepted, — but none from the slave states, and was de- 
clared president-elect. (New Jersey gave Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 votes.) 

1860, Dec. 20. South Carolina seceded from the union, and was 

followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Lou- 
isiana, and North Carolina in January, 1861 ; by Texas in Febru- 
ary ; Virginia in April ; and by Tennessee and Arkansas in May. 
Missouri and Kentucky declared themselves neutral. Delegates from 
the seceded states met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 1861, 
Feb. 4 ; and formed a provisional government under the style of the 
Confederate States of America, Feb. 8. Jefferson Davis was 
elected president ; Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president. The se- 
ceding states endeavored to seize all the national property within 
their borders, and were successful except at Pensacola (Florida) and 
Charleston (South Carolina). At the latter place the commander 
of the United States forces withdrew to an unfinished fort, Sumter, 
on an island in the harbor, Dec. 26, 1860 ; and on the 9th of January, 

1861, a steamer, the Star of the "West, bringing him supplies, was 
fired on by the state forces, and forced to return. 

1861, Jan. 29. Kansas admitted to the union as a, free (34th) state. 

1861. Lincoln reached Washington in safety Feb. 28 ; and 
was inaugurated (16th) president of the United States on 
March 4 without disturbance. William H. Seward, secretary of 
state ; Simon Cameron, succeeded Jan. 1862, by Edwin M. Stan- 
ton, secretary of war ; Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. 

The government of the so-called confederate states attempted to open 
negotiations, with the federal authorities, for a peaceful separation, 



A. d. United States. 557 

but the president declined to entertain any such propositions. On the 
contrary, it was determined to succour the garrison in Charleston 
harbor. The insurgents fired on fort Sumter 1861, Apr. 12, which 
surrendered Apr. 14. 

1861-1865. The Civil War. 

Apr. 15, the president issued a proclamation calling for 
75,000 volunteers to serve for three months ; and summoned congress 
to meet July 4. April 18 a few companies of Pennsylvania mili- 
tia reached Washington ; and on April 19, the anniversary of the bat- 
tle of Lexington, the sixth Massachusetts regiment was attacked 
by a mob while passing through Baltimore. The same day the pres- 
ident declared the ports of the seceded states to be in a state of 
blockade. On May 3d he issued a call for 42,000 men to serve for 
three years or the war. May 13, Great Britain recognized the 
so-called confederate states as belligerents. June 10 the union 
troops were repulsed at Big Bethel, and July 21 were routed at Bull 
Run or Manassas. 

Nov. 1. George B„ McClellan succeeded general Scott in command 
of the union forces. Nov. 8, Mason and Slidell, commissioners 
from the confederate states to Great Britain and France, were 
taken from the British mail steamer Trent by the American 
steamer San Jacinto. War with Great Britain averted through 
the prudence and skill of Mr. Seward. The commissioners 
were given up, and thus was established a principle of inter- 
national law for which the United States had invariably con- 
tended. 

Events of 1862. Feb. 6, capture of Fort Henry (in Ten- 
nessee) by the union forces. Feb. 16, " unconditional sur- 
render " of Fort Donelson to general U. S. Grant (b. 1822 ; 
f 1885). Mar. 9, Monitor and Merrimac. Mar. 14, cap- 
ture of Newbern. Apr. 6 and 7, battle of Shiloh or Pitts- 
burgh landing (Grant) ; retreat of the confederates. Apr. 
16, slavery abolished in the District of Columbia. April 24, 
a fleet under flag-officer (afterwards admiral) David G. Far- 
ragut ran the forts below New Orleans, and received the 
surrender of that city the next day. 

March to July, Peninsular campaign (McClellan). Battle of Fair 
Oaks May 31 and June 1 ; seven days battles before Rich- 
mond (Mechanicsville, Gaines's Mill, White Oak swamp, and 
Malvern Hill July 1) ; withdrawal from the peninsula. The 
confederate army, now under the command of general Rob- 
ert E. Lee (b. 1807, f 1870), pressed forward toward Wash- 
ington. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Aug. 5) ; defeat of the 
union army under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, 
Aug. 30. Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland, but was de- 
feated at South Mountain, and after the battle of the Antie- 
tam (Sept. 17) recrossed the Potomac. McClellan superseded 
by Burnside, who was repulsed with great loss at Fredericks- 
burg (Dec. 13), and was succeeded (Jan. 26) by general 
Hooker. 



558 Modern History, a. d. 

Events of 1863. After the battle of the Antietam the presi- 
dent had issued a proclamation declaring that all slaves in 
states or parts of states in rebellion Jan. 1, 1863, should then 
be free ; and on that day he issued the formal emancipation 
proclamation. 
The army of the Potomac, under general Hooker, defeated at 
Chancellorsville (May 3). f Stonewall Jackson (b. 1826). 
Lee again attempted an invasion of the north, but was de- 
feated by the army of the Potomac, now commanded by gen- 
eral George G. Meade (b. 1816, f 1872), at Gettysburg 
(July 1-3). July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. These 
two events were the turning points of the war. Grant assumed 
command of the military division of the Mississippi, and with 
force composed of the army of the Cumberland commanded by 
Thomas (b. 1816, f 1870), and reinforcements from Vicksburg 
under William T. Sherman (b. 1820 ; f 1891), and from 
the Potomac under Hooker, fought and won the battles of 
Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge at Chatta- 
nooga, Tennessee, Nov. 24 and 25. 

West Virginia (loyal portion of Virginia) (35th state). 

Events of 1864. Grant made a lieutenant-general (March 9), 
and commander-in-chief (Mar. 12) of all the armies of the 
United States which henceforth operated on a settled plan. May 
3, Grant with the army of the Potomac under general Meade 
crossed the Rapidan, fought the battles of the Wilderness 
(May 5 to 12), Spottsylvania (May 12-21), North Anna 
(May 21-31), Cold Harbor (June 1-3), and sat down before 
Petersburg, June 19. A confederate force under Early was 
sent to threaten Washington, and thus to secure the with- 
drawal of Grant. Early penetrated into Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania, but was defeated by Sheridan (b. 1831) at Opequan 
(Sept. 19), Fisher's Hill (Sept. 21), and at Cedar Creek 
(Oct. 19). The Shenandoah valley was then devastated, 
and Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg. The western 
armies under Sherman began a campaign against the confed- 
erates led by general Joe Johnston (b. 1807) May 6, and 
after a series of engagements reached Atlanta, which was 
evacuated by the confederates Sept. 2. A portion of his army 
was then sent north under Thomas to watch Hood (the suc- 
cessor of Johnston), who was finally defeated before Nash- 
ville, Dec. 15 and 16. Meanwhile Sherman, after burning At- 
lanta, started on the march through Georgia. He reached 
the sea Dec. 12, and took Savannah Dec. 22. On the water 
the Kearsarge ( Winslow) sank the confederate steamer Ala- 
bama off Cherbourg (Alabama claims, p. 560) ; and a fleet 
under vice-admiral Farragut ran the forts at Mobile, Aug. 5. 

1864, Nov. Nevada (36th state). 

Nov. 8. Reelection of Abraham Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice- 
president. 

1865. The Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slav- 



a.. D. United States. 559 

ery -within the United States, was proposed by congress 
Feb. 1, and was declared ratified Dec. 18th. 
Events of 1865- Surrender of Fort Fisher to general 
Terry, Jan. 15. Grant had gradually drawn his lines around 
Lee's right flank, and on April 1st Sheridan won the battle of 
Five Forks, which compelled the evacuation of Petersburg 
April 2, and the surrender of Richmond April 3, Grant, with 
his whole army, under Meade and Sheridan, pursued Lee, 
who, being surrounded, capitulated at Appomattox Court 
House, April 9. Meantime Sherman had set out from Sa- 
vannah for the north, Feb. 1. On Feb. 17, he compelled the 
evacuation of Charleston, and on April 26 received the surren- 
der of the last confederate army, under Johnston. 

1865, April 15. Assassination of Lincoln. 
Andrew Johnson, vice-president, succeeds. 

Cost of the war. National debt in 1860, $64,842,287 ; in 1866, 
$2,773,236,173, which great increase was in addition to the 
debts incurred by the states and municipalities. 

1865, May 22. The southern ports declared open. 

May 29. Amnesty to all persons engaged in the rebellion, with the 
exception of fourteen specified classes. 

1866, Apr. 9. Civil rights bill passed over the president's veto. 
June 16. Fourteenth amendment, securing to the freedmen 

the right of citizenship, declaring the validity of the national 
debt, and regulating the basis of representation and disqualifi- 
cation from office, proposed by congress, and declared ratified 
1868, July 28. 
1 866, July 16. Act to continue the freedmen's bureau, which had 
charge of the loyal and suffering classes, black and white, in 
the southern states, passed over the president's veto. 

1866, July 27. Telegraphic communication finally established 
with Great Britain. 

1867, March 1. Nebraska (37th state). 

Mar. 2. Reconstruction act passed over the president's 
veto. It divided the ten southern states into five military 
districts, each commanded by an army officer, who should see 
to the protection of life and property. The seceded states 
to be restored to their place in the union, whenever a con- 
vention of delegates, "elected by the male citizens, ... of 
whatever race, color, or previous condition," except those dis- 
franchised for participation in rebellion, etc., should frame a con- 
stitution, which, being ratified by the people and approved by con- 
gress, should go into operation, and the legislature thereupon 
elected should adopt the fourteenth amendment. 

1867, Mar. 4. Tenure of office bill passed over the president's veto. 

1867, Mar. 30. Alaska purchase. Area 577,340 square miles; 

price a little over seven million dollars. 

1868, Feb. 24-May 26. Impeachment of president An* 
drew Johnson by the house of representatives. He had op* 



560 Modern History. A. d. 

posed the reconstruction measures of congress ; but the imme- 
diate cause of the impeachment was an alleged violation of the 
tenure of office act of 1867, Mar. 4. The senate acquitted him 
by one vote (35 to 19, the constitution requiring a two thirds 
majority). 

1868, Dec. 25. Amnesty extended. 

1869, Feb. 26. Fifteenth amendment, that the right to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of " race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude" proposed by congress, and 
declared ratified, 1870, Mar. 30. 

1869, Mar. 4-1877, Mar. 5. Ulysses S. Grant (Illinois), 
republican, 18th president. 

1870, Population 38,555,983 (9th census). 

1871, Mar. 3. A clause in the appropriation bill authorized the 
president to appoint a civil service commission to prescribe 

rules, etc. 

1871, May 8. Treaty of Washington with Great Britain 
provided : 1. For the reference to the emperor of Germany of 
the dispute as to the Oregon boundary (decided in favor of the 
United States, 1872, Oct. 21). 2. For a partial settlement of the 
fishery dispute (Halifax award, 1877, gave Great Britain five and 
one half million dollars) ; this part of the treaty abrogated by act of 
the United States, 1883. 3. For the settlement of the Alabama 
claims ( Geneva tribunal of arbitration awarded to the United States 
over fifteen million dollars). 

1873. Commercial crisis. 1875. Colorado (38th state). 
1876. Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. 

1876. The national elections of this year were very close, and con- 
gress appointed an electoral commission (five senators, five 
representatives, and five justices of the supreme court), which 
declared the republican candidate elected. 

1877, Mar. 5-1881, Mar. 4. Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), 
republican, 19th president. 

1879, Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments. 

1880, Population 50,155,783 (10th census). 

1881, Mar. 4. James A. Garfield (Ohio), republican, 20th 
president. July 2, shot and mortally wounded, f Sept. 19. 
Succeeded by the vice-president, Chester A. Arthur, of New 
York, republican. 

1882, May 6. Immigration of Chinese laborers suspended 
for ten years, in accordance with a treaty with China, con- 
cluded 1880, Nov. 7. 

1883, Jan. 9. Civil service act (Pendleton bill) introduced 
the principle of compulsory competitive examination into the 
civil service of the United States. (See p. 586.) 

§6. CHINA. (Seep.M5>) 

1796-1882. 
1796-1820. Kiaking. 

Frequent insurrections, rampant piracy. Embassy of lord Am- 
herst (1816). 



>A. D. China. 561 

1820-1850. Taukwang. 

The exclusive privilege of the East India company ceasing in 
1834, lord Napier was appointed superintendent of British trade 
(f 1834). Imperial prohibition of the opium trade. Commissioner 
Lin sent to Canton with extraordinary powers (1838). Surrender of 
opium by Capt. Elliot, British commissioner to the Chinese, by whom 
it was destroyed (over 20,000 chests), 1839, Mar .-June. The con- 
tinuance of the trade, and the English demands that the loss be made 
good to their traders, caused the 

1840-1842. First war with Great Britain (Opium war). A 
treaty concluded by Keshin, successor of Lin (Hong-kong 
ceded to England), was rejected by the emperor. The English cap- 
tured Amoy (1842, Aug. 27), Ning-po (Oct. 13), Shang-hai (1842, 
June 19), and stormed Ching-keang (July 21). 
1842, Aug. 29. Treaty of Nanking. 

1. Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Ning-po, Shanghai, opened to British 
trade. 2. Hong-kong ceded to England. 3. The Chinese paid 
$21,000,000. 4. Establishment of a regular tariff. 5. Official inter- 
course to be on a basis of equality. 

1844, July 3. Treaty with the United States (Caleb Cushing, am- 
bassador). Treaty with France (Oct. 23). 
1850-1860. Hienfung. 

1850, Aug. Outbreak of the Tai-ping rebellion (1850-1864). The 
leader was Hung Sui-tsuen, who called himself Tien-teh (" ce- 
lestial virtue "), and claimed to have been commissioned by heaven 
to conduct a political and religious reform of the empire. Promulga- 
tion of a religious system based on some knowledge of Christianity. 
1853. Capture of Nanking (Mar. 19), Shanghai (Sept. 7). Sui- 
tsuen proclaimed emperor. 

1855. Failure of the attack made by the rebels on Peking. 

1856, Oct. 8. The lorcha x Arrow, owned by a Chinese, but com- 
manded by an Irishman and flying the British flag, was 

boarded at Canton by Chinese officers in search of suspected pirates ; 
twelve natives were carried off and the flag pulled down. 
1856, Nov. Three Chinese forts destroyed by the American fleet 
under commodore Armstrong, the Chinese having fired upon 
American boats. 

The attempt of the English government (Palmerston, p. 543) to ob- 
tain a disavowal of the attack upon the Arrow, or an apology there- 
for, resulted in the 

1857-1860. (Second) war with Great Britain allied with France, 
Lord Elgin, English envoy. Destruction of the Chinese fleet 
(1857, May 26, 27). Capture of Canton (Dec. 28, 29). Treaties of 
Tientsin (June, 1858) with Great Britain, France, the United 
States. 

Infraction of the treaty (1859, June), renewal of the war. Repulse 
of the English attempt to force the passage of the Pei-ho forts (June 

1 Lorcha: a light Chinese sailing vessf I, carrying guns, built after the Euro*- 
$ean model, but rigged like a Chinese junk. — Imperial. Dictionary. 



562 Modern History. A. Do 

25). Chinese defeat at Palikao (I860, Sept. 21). Destruction of the 
summer palace (Oct. 6), surrender of Peking (Oct. 12). 
1860, Oct. 24. Treaty of Peking. 

Ratification of the treaty of Tientsin; toleration of Chris- 
tianity ; revised tariff ; payment of an indemnity ; resident ambassa- 
dors at Peking. 
1860-1875. Tungchi, six years old. 

Palace revolution. Administration of prince Kung. Reor- 
ganization of the imperial army under general Ward, an American 
(f 1861), and colonel Gordon, an Englishman. The " ever victorious 
force." 
1862-1864. Suppression of the rebellion. Capture of Nanking 

(1864, July 19). Suicide of Hung Sui-tsuen. 
1866. Successful rebellion of Yakub Beg (f 1877) in Kashgar. 
1868. Embassy of Anson Burlingame (and two Chinese envoys) to 

the treaty powers. (Burlingame f 1870.) 

1870, May. Mohammedan rebellion in the northwest (Yun-nan, 
Kan-suh). 

1871. Russia annexed Kuldja, until the Chinese power should be 
reestablished in that region. 

1873. Settlement of the audience question ; foreign ambassadors re- 
ceived by the emperor without the ceremony of prostration 
(kotow). Suppression of the Mohammedan rebellion. 

1875-1908. Kwangsii, three years old (Tsai-tien). 

1876, June 30. Opening of the first railroad in China (Shanghai to 

Woosung, eleven miles). 
1877-1878. Terrible famine in the north of China. 

1877, Dec. Defeat and assassination of Yakub Beg. Capture of 

Kashgar. 
1879, June. Treaty with Russia negotiated by Chung-how : China 
obtained only a portion of Kuldja and paid an indemnity. Re- 
jection of the treaty. 

1881, Aug. Peace with Russia negotiated by the marquis Tseng. 

Cession of nearly all of the Kuldja district ; China paid the 
expenses of Russian occupation. 

1882. A threatened war with Japan avoided by Chinese diplomacy. 
Dispute with the French over Tonquin (p. 535). (See p. 594-) 

§7. JAPAN. (See p. 445.) 

1817-1882. 
Mikados. Shoguns (Tokugawa family). 

1817-1846, Ninko 1787-1838 IyenorL 

(1838-1853 Iyeyoshi. 
1846-1866, Komei 1 1853-1859 Iyesada. 

( 1859-1866 Iyemochi. 
1867 — x. Mutsuhito 1866-1868 Reiki (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- 

nobu ; Noriyoshi). 
Growing dissatisfaction with the usurped power of the shoguns 
among the samurai ; jealousy of the long possession of the shogunate 
by the Tokugawa family (1603-1868) among the great daimios. 
1853, July 7. Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, en- 
tered the harbor of Yedo with four vessels, but soon departed ; 
in Feb. 1854, he returned, and concluded a 



A. D. Japan. 563 

1854, Mar. 21. Treaty between Japan and the United States, 
which was signed by the shogun, whom Perry took to be the 
"secular emperor " of Japan, under the newly assumed title of tai- 
kun (tycoon, "great prince," properly a title of the mikado). Trea- 
ties with Great Britain (1854, Oct. 14), and Russia (1855, Jan. 26). 
In 1858 treaties (peace, amity, unrestricted commerce) concluded 
with the United States (Townshend Harris), Great Britain (Elgin), 
France, Russia, — all signed by the shogun. 

1859. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate, opened to trade. 

These unwarranted assumptions of power on the part of the 
shogun angered the mikado and the Kioto court, where the foreigners 
were regarded with deep distrust. 

1860. First Japanese embassy to the United States sent out by /*, 
prime minister of the shogun (assassinated Mar. 23). 

1861-1865. Civil dissensions. Outrages upon foreign representa- 
tives. Death of an Englishman (Richardson) in a broil with 
the train of the brother of the prince of Satsuma, avenged by the 
bombardment of Kagoshima (in Satsuma), said the exaction of 
$625,000 (1862). 

1862. The daimios, released from compulsory residence at Yedo, 
flocked to Kioto. 

1863. Some American, Dutch, and French vessels, having anchored 
in the forbidden roadstead of Shimonoseki after due warning, 

were fired upon. In reprisal these powers bombarded the batteries, 
inflicting considerable loss. In spite of this 

1864, Sept. 4. Bombardment and destruction of the Shimonoseki 

batteries by English, French, Dutch, and American vessels. 
Exaction of an indemnity of $3,000,000, of which the United States 
received $785,000.! 

1865, Nov. 25. Ratification of treaties extorted by the foreign pow- 

ers. 

1867. Nov. 19. Resignation of Keiki, the last shogun. 

1868. Restoration of the mikado. End of the dual gov- 
ernment. 

The proclamation setting forth the resumption of government 
by the mikado (1868, Jan. 3) was followed by the revolt of Keiki and 
by open war, which, after severe fighting (battles of Fushimi, 1868, 
Jan. 27-30 ; Wakamatsu, Hakodate), ended in favor of the imperial- 
ists (June, 1869). 

1869. Nov. Residence of the mikado transferred from Kioto to Yedo 

(Jeddo), the name of the latter place having been previously 
changed to Tokio (" the eastern capital "). 

1870. The mikado, by advice of the leading samurai (Okubo), 
changed front, and welcomed the foreigners. 

1871. Embassy to the United States and Europe. 

1871. Abolition of feudalism ; relegation of the daimios 
to private life ; abolition of the title ; exchange of their rev- 
enues for pensions. 

1 In Feb. 1883, the house of representatives accepted a favorable report upon 
the Japanese indemnity bill. Repayment of the $785,000 without interest. 



564 Modem History. A. D. 

Assimilation to western civilization. Issue of a code of criminal 
law (revised 1881) ; establishment of a government post ; introduc- 
tion of the telegraph ; railroad from Yokohama to Shinogana (1872) ; 
bureau of education ; adoption of the Gregorian calendar (1874, Jan. 
1) ; female normal school (1875) ; university of Tokio (1873); rees- 
tablishment of the Shinto faith (p. 32) ; new military system. 
1874. Expedition to Formosa, avenging the murder of Japanese sail- 
ors on that island. 

1876. Enforcement of a treaty with Corea. 

1877. Rebellion in Satsuma (Saigo, Kirimo) suppressed after heavy 
fighting (Saigo, f Sept. 24). Large issue of inconvertible paper 
money to defray the expenses. 

1878. Establishment of local elective assemblies for regulating local 
taxation, and with right of petitioning the central government ; 

franchise secured to all males twenty-one years of age who pay a 

land tax of $5.00. 

1881. Negotiations with the foreign powers relative to the adoption 

of a higher tariff, and to the abolition of the privilege enjoyed 
by foreigners of living under the jurisdiction of their native country. 
Dispute with China over the Loo-Choo islands. 

Imperial decree establishing a new constitution ; promise 

of a national assembly in 1890 (p. 594). (Seep. 59 ^ 



APPENDIX (1883— x). 



§8. GREAT BRITAIN". (See p. 546.) 

1883-1903. 

1883, Jan. 18. France having declined to join in the expedition against 

Arabi, the dual control 1 was abolished by the khedive 
(Tewjik Pasha), and a British financial agent appointed in 
place of the controllers. Sir Evelyn Baring (later Lord Cro- 
mer), British diplomatic agent and consul-general. In the 
Soudan the mahdi Muhammad Ahmad was conducting a reli- 
gious revolt. Hicks Pasha's Egyptian army annihilated (Nov. 
3-5, 1883); (Valentine) Baker Pasha defeated (Feb. 4, 1884). 
Great Britain insisted on evacuation of the Soudan, and 

1884, Feb. 18. Gen. Charles Gordon (" Chinese " Gordon, p. 562) 

arrived at Khartum to withdraw the garrisons and establish a 
native government. 

Feb. 27. By the Convention of London the South African 
republic, now first so-called, was granted practical inde- 
pendence in internal affairs, but Great Britain reserved a veto 
over treaties with other states, except the Orange Free State 
and native tribes. Draft guaranteeing full independence was 
rejected by Great Britain; but the new convention made no 
mention of preamble of convention of 1881, in which the suzer- 
ainty of Great Britain was asserted, while it expressly substi- 
tuted its articles for the articles of 1881. Western boundary 
established. 

Nov. 6. Protectorate proclaimed over southeastern New Guinea. 

Dec. 6. Third reform act received royal assent (pp. 540, 544). 
Uniform franchise in counties and boroughs, and in the three 
kingdoms; about 2,500,000 enfranchised. Redistribution of 
seats act (June 25, 1885) ; counties now have more seats than 
boroughs have ; single member seats. Total members of par- 
liament, 670. 

1885, Jan. 26. Khartum captured by the mahdi • death of gen. 

Gordon. A relief expedition which had been demanded by 
the opposition since March, 1884, had started under lord 
Wolseley in Sept. After severe fighting (Abu Klea, Jan. 14) 

1 Egypt became bankrupt in 1876 in consequence of loans contracted by 
the khedive Ismail Pasha (deposed, 1879), and the financial affairs were under- 
taken by the nations representing the chief creditors. In 1881 France and 
Great Britain practically assumed the administration of the country. 



566 Modern History. A. d. 

an advanced guard approached Khartum, Jan. 28, but the ex- 
pedition was withdrawn. 

March 30. Russians occupied Penjdeh, driving out Afghan force. 
Rupture imminent, but an adjustment was finally made and the 
Russian-Afghan frontier delimited by joint commission (1886), 
Russia retaining Penjdeh. 

March-May. Rebellion of Louis Riel in Northwest territory, 
Canada. Riel surrendered, May 15 ; executed, Nov. 16. 

June 23. Lord Salisbury (b. 1830 ; M. P., 1854 ; lord, 1868 ; 
1 1903), prime minister. 

Sept. 30. British Bechuanaland made a crown colony ; protectorate 
over Northern Bechuanaland. 

1886. Canadian and Bering sea fisheries (p. 586). 

Jan. 1. Upper Burma annexed to British India as result of the 
defeat of king Theebaw. 

Jan. 12. Eleventh (23d imperial) parliament of Victoria met, 
Irish nationalists (86) holding balance of power. Bradlaugh, 
after repeated exclusions because of his religious opinions, was 
allowed to take the oath. Government defeated, and 

Feb. 12. Gladstone became premier for the third time ; sir W. 
Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosebery (foreign), John 
Morley (Ireland), Joseph Chamberlain (local government 
board). 

April 8. Gladstone introduced a Home rule bill for Ireland. 
Separate parliament, and Irish members excluded from the 
imperial parliament ; lord-lieutenant appointed by the crown 
with right of veto ; prerogatives of crown untouched; customs 
and excise under British treasury; Ireland to pay ^ of inter- 
est on national debt. Secession of liberal unionists under 
lord Hartington and Chamberlain (resigned in March) followed. 
Land purchase bill for Ireland introduced. Home rule bill 
was defeated on second reading, June 7 (341-311), and par- 
liament was dissolved (June 26). The elections gave 316 
conservatives, 191 home-rule liberals, 78 liberal unionists, and 
85 Irish home-rulers. Gladstone resigned (July 20) and 

July 21. Lord Salisbury became prime minister ; lord Iddesleigh 
(sir Stafford Northcote) (foreign); lord Randolph Churchill 
(exchequer and leader of the Commons), succeeded by G. J. 
Goschen, Jan., 1887; sir M. Hicks Beach (Ireland), succeeded 
by A. J. Balfour, March 5, 1887. 

Aug. 5. Twelfth (24th imperial) parliament of Victoria met. 
A tenant's relief bill introduced by Parnell failing, the 

Oct. 17. plan of campaign was put into force in Ireland ; rents 
offered and refused were formed into a joint fund for the sup- 
port of evicted tenants. 

1887, May. Canadian Pacific railway opened (2905 miles). 

June 21. Jubilee day in commemoration of the fiftieth anniver- 
sary of the accession of queen Victoria. 

July 19. Criminal land amendment (Ireland) act ("Crimes act"); 
Irish land act, Aug. 23; Sept. 9, disturbances at Mitchels- 
town, Ireland. 



a. d. Cheat Britain. 567 

1888, March 27. Conversion of the national debt (Goschen's act). 
June 11. Lord Stanley appointed governor-general of Canada. 
Aug. 13. Local government act (England and Wales) received royal 

assent. County administration (except judicial and licensing 
powers) transferred from justices of the peace to elective 
county councils. London county council (p. 570). 

May-Sept. Protectorate established over North Borneo, Brunei, 
and Sarawak. 

Dec. 10. Lord Lansdowne appointed viceroy of India. 

1889, June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 587). 

Oct. 29. Royal charter granted to Britisli South Africa Company. 

1890, Feb. 13. Report of the special (" Parnell ") commission 

on charges against the Irish leaders. In Feb. R. Pigott con- 
fessed the forgery of the letter {Times, April 18, 1887) in 
which Parnell was made to approve the murder of Burke (p. 
546). Commission found that the personal charges against 
Parnell were false; that direct complicity with crime was not 
proved as to the respondents collectively, but that they " en- 
tered into a conspiracy to promote, by a system of coercion 
and intimidation an agrarian agitation for the purpose of 
impoverishing and expelling the Irish landlords," and did not 
denounce a system which they knew led to crime. 

March 17. Convention signed with China on boundary of Thibet 
and India. 

July 1. Treaty with Germany signed, fixing boundaries of German 
East and West Africa and British possessions, with recip- 
rocal free transit for commerce; Heligoland ceded to Ger- 
many in exchange for Zanzibar (protectorate proclaimed, 
Nov. 7). 

Aug. 5. Convention signed recognizing French protectorate over 
Madagascar, and French sphere of influence from Algeria to 
the Niger and lake Chad. 

Nov. 28-Dec. 6. Division of Irish nationalists following conviction 
of Parnell of adultery; Justin McCarthy leader of the major- 
ity. Parnell f Oct. 6, 1891. 

1891, Feb. 26. Population of all India, 287,314,671. 

March 24. Protocol signed with Italy on African spheres of influ- 
ence ; Abyssinia within Italy's sphere. 
April 5. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 38,104,975. 

1891, June 11. Treaty with Portugal signed, regulating the bound- 

aries of African possessions. Agreement on spheres of influ- 
ence, May 31, 1893. 

Aug. 5. Elementary education act (England and Wales) received 
royal assent; public grant to denominational and board schools. 
Assent also given to 

Aug. 5. Land purchase (Ireland) act; voluntary agreement of sale 
between landlord and tenant; landlord paid by government 
bonds. 

1892, Jan. 7. f Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt, succeeded by Abbas 

II. Pasha. 
Aug. 4. Thirteenth (25th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 



568 Modern History. A. d. 

The government was defeated on a motion of want of confi- 
dence and resigned, and 
Aug. 16. Gladstone became (4th time) premier; sir W. Vernon 
Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosebery (foreign), John Morley 
(Ireland), James Bryce (chancellor of Lancaster), H. Camp- 
bell Bannerman (war). 

1893, Jan. 16-19. Ministerial crisis in Egypt; khedive informed 

that British advice must be followed. 

Feb. 13. Home rule bill for Ireland introduced by Gladstone. It 
was like the earlier bill except that 80 Irish members were 
to sit in the imperial parliament with (by amendment in com- 
mittee) right to vote on all matters. The bill passed the 
Commons on Sept. 1 (301-267) but was 

Sept. 8. rejected by the House of Lords by vote of 419 to 41. 

July-Nov. Matabele war, ending in the defeat of chief Lobengula 
(f Jan. 23, 1894). 

Aug. 15. Bering sea arbitration award (p. 588). 

1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese agreement (p. 595). 

March 3. Resignation of Gladstone ; lord Rosebery prime min- 
ister. 

March 5. Parish council (England and Wales) act; elective coun- 
cils to supersede vestries except in church matters. 

March 20. Sovereignty over Pondoland proclaimed; annexed to 
Cape Colony (June 7). 

May 21. Manchester ship canal opened. 

Aug. 7. Evicted tenants (Ireland) bill passed the Commons, but was 
rejected by the Lords (Aug. 14). 

Aug. 27. Treaty with Uganda signed ; protectorate. 

1895, Jan. 21. Agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland signed with 

France. 

March 5 -April 20. English garrison at Chitral besieged by 
Afghan freebooters. The government sanctioned permanent 
occupation of Chitral (Aug. 10), and several punitive expedi- 
tious against frontier tribes followed (1897). 

June 22. Rosebery' ministry resigned after a defeat on a side issue, 
and was succeeded by the 

June 25 third ministry of lord Salisbury (foreign); A. J. Bal- 
four (treasury and leader of the Commons), sir M. Hicks 
Beach (exchequer), Joseph Chamberlain (colonies), G. J. Goschen 
(admiralty), lord Lansdowne (war, after 1900, foreign). 

Aug. 12. Fourteenth (26th imperial) parliament of Victoria 
met ; government majority, 152. 

Dec. Venezuela boundary controversy (p. 590). 

1895, Dec. 29. Jameson Raid. 

Causes : development of gold mines in South African 
republic (discovery of gold, 1884) by foreigners (uitlanders), who 
outnumbered the burghers but were allowed no political rights 
by president Kruger (b. 1825; pres. 1883 ; f 1904) and the Boer oli- 
garchy, while they were oppressed by the burdens of citizenship, 
monopolies (especially of dynamite), and maladministration- growth 



A. D. Great Britain. 569 

of British control north and west of Transvaal ; rejection by the 
Boers of the British claim of suzerainty over them (p. 565); desire 
of the Cape authorities to place the Dutch states under British control. 
Cecil Rhodes (b. 1853 ; f 1902), premier of Cape Colony and head 
of the British South Africa Company, which controlled the region 
north and west of Transvaal, fostered a conspiracy of uitlanders at 
Johannesburg and collected a body of troops under L. S. Jameson at 
Mafeking to aid them. Jameson, without orders or cooperation of 
the uitlanders, crossed the frontier (Dec. 29) and marched on 
Johannesburg with 600 horse. He was captured (Jan. 2) and turned 
over to the British authorities (Jan. 14). Secretary Chamberlain 
denounced the raid. 
1896-1903. Plague in India; also during earlier years, famine. 

1896, Jan. Expedition against Ashantee ; king Prempeh deported. 
Jan. 15. Convention signed with France on China and Siam (p. 

596). 
March-Sept. Advance of British and Egyptians in Soudan under 
gen. Herbert (later lord) Kitchener • opposed by Osman Digna. 
The Egyptians were established near Dongola. 

1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with the United 

States ; but it was rejected by the Senate (May 5). 

June 22. Jubilee of the sixtieth anniversary of the accession of 
queen Victoria ; prominent participation of colonies and de- 
pendencies. Conferences of colonial premiers with secretary 
Chamberlain. 

July. Gold discovered at Klondike in Canadian Northwest territories. 

Aug. 6. Workmen's compensation act • employers made liable for 
injuries, but "contracting out " allowed. 

Oct. 1. Chamberlain reasserted British suzerainty over South 
African republic in answer to Kruger's demand for for- 
eign arbitration on the Convention of London (p. 565). 

Dec. 25. Italians evacuated Kassala, which the Egyptians occupied. 

1898, April 8. The Anglo-Egyptian army under Kitchener de- 

feated the dervishes near Atbara, securing Berber. The advance 

was continued during the summer and 
Sept. 2. the forces of the mahdi (Abdullahi) were defeated at Om- 

durman and Khartum occupied. This was followed by 

the final defeat and death of the mahdi near Gedid (Nov. 24, 

1899), and the capture of Osman Digna (Jan. 19, 1900). 
1898, May 19. f Gladstone. 
June 13. Act of the Canadian parliament approved, giving to Great 

Britain and some of her colonies a tariff preferential of 25%. 

This was increased in 1900 to 33|% Germany retaliated, 

July 7, 1899, by depriving Canada of the most favored nation 

treatment. 
July 25. Lord Minto appointed governor-general of Canada. 
Aug. 10. George N. (later lord) Curzon appointed viceroy of India. 
Aug. 12. Local government (Ireland) act received the royal assent ; 

extension to Ireland of county and district councils (p. 567), 

but not of parish councils. 
Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident. A French expedition under major 



570 Modem History. A. d. 

Marchand declined to comply with Kitchener's request to with- 
draw from Fashoda on the White Nile (Sept. 19). Nov. 4 
the French government agreed to withdraw the force, and on 
March 21, 1899, a convention was signed as to possessions and 
spheres of influence in central Africa. France renounced 
any claim to the Nile valley. 

Nov. 1. Old age pension law enacted in New Zealand. 

Dec. 25. An imperial penny postage rate went into operation 
with most of the colonies. Australia included, April 24, 1902. 

1899, Feb. Attempt of France to obtain territory at Muscat from 

sultan of Oman prevented by Great Britain. 

March 15, Oct. 28. Agreements between Germany and Rhodes for 
the construction of the Cape to Cairo telegraph through Ger- 
man East Africa. 

July 13. London (outside the City) divided into separate boroughs, 
with powers previously held by the county council (p. 567). 

Aug. 9. Central board of education established. 

1899-1902. South African War. 

Unsuccessful negotiations followed the Jameson raid (p. 568). 
To the demand of Great Britain for recognition of the rights of the 
uitlanders, the Transvaal responded with a claim of entire inde- 
pendence not only in such (internal) affairs but in foreign matters, 
a request for indemnity, and active military preparation. Violation 
of London convention (p. 565). March 24, 1899, petition of British 
citizens at the mines for intervention. Various projects, including 
an offer (Aug. 19) of the franchise on five years' residence and a 
quarter representation in the rand, in return for Great Britain's re- 
nunciation of the claim of suzerainty, were refused by England. Both 
sides prepared for war, and the 
Oct. 12. Boers issued an ultimatum, demanding the immediate 

withdrawal of British troops from the frontier and the removal 

of all reinforcements from South Africa. When this was 

refused the forces of the 
Oct. 12. two Dutch republics (in offensive alliance) invaded 

Natal and Cape Colony, and also laid siege to Kimberley and 

Mafeking. 
The Boers had the advantage of better preparation and more 

mobility, and besieged sir George White and 12,000 men at 

Ladysmith. Sir Redvers Butter, marching to relieve the 

town, was defeated at 
Dec. 15. Colenso, on the Tugela, at 

1900, Jan. 23. Spion Kop, and at 

Feb. 5. Vaal Krantz ; but finally succeeded in 

Feb. 28. relieving Ladysmith. Lord Methuen, advancing on 

Kimberley, was defeated at 
1899, Dec. 10, 11. Maagersfontein on the Modder by gen. Cronje; 

and gen. Gatacre at 
Dec. 10. Stormberg by the Boers who had invaded Cape Colony. 

Lord Roberts was sent out as commander-in-chief, with 

Kitchener as chief of staff. The 



A. D. South African War. 571 

1900, Feb. 15. relief of Kimberley (where Rhodes, the " evil genius 

of the Boers," was) was accomplished by gen. French, while 

Roberts 
Feb. 17. surrounded Cronje at Paardesburg, and after ten days 

received his surrender and that of 4000 men. The 
May 24. annexation of the Orange Free State was proclaimed 

by lord Roberts, who soon after 
June 5. occupied Pretoria. This advance had also 
May 17. raised the siege of Maf eking (held by col. Baden-Powell). 

The Boers were defeated at 
June 11. Diamond Hill, and the railroad to the Portuguese frontier 

having been cleared, the 
Sept. 1. South African republic was annexed. Kruger retired 

to Europe, and Roberts left the command to Kitchener. 
The Boers, under Botha, De Wet, and Delarey, began a guerilla 
"warfare : communications were cut, supplies captured, and isolated 
garrisons "rushed," while engagements were avoided. The British 
built lines of blockhouses, connected them by means of entanglements, 
established concentration camps for noncombatants, and kept an army 
of 250,000 in the field against a force averaging 45,000. The 
1902, May 31. Boers finally submitted, receiving honorable terms, 

but renouncing independence. British force during the 
war, 450,000 ; Boer force, about 75,000 ; British loss, 22,000 ; Boer 
loss, about 5000. Deficiency in organization and administration of 
the British army (report of royal commission, Aug. 26, 1903) and 
participation of colonial troops were features of the war. The con- 
quered states became the crown colonies of Orange River and 
Transvaal, with appointive legislative councils. 

1900, Jan. 10. First train from Cairo to Khartum. 
July 9. Royal assent given to the act constituting the Common- 
wealth of Australia. All of Australasia united in one 
government except New Zealand. Bicameral parliament of des- 
ignated powers ; an equal number of senators from each colony, pop- 
ularly elected ; representatives apportioned according to population, 
and given control of revenue bills ; bills to receive the royal assent 
direct or through the governor-general. Executive composed of 
the governor-general and a responsible ministry. Federal judiciary 
of supreme and lower courts, with regulation of appeal to king in 
council; appointed justices ; jurisdiction over interstate and state 
and federal relationships. Special provisions for trade and finances, 
new states, and amendment. Lord Hopetoun was appointed first gov- 
ernor-general. The government was inaugurated, Jan. 1, 1901 ; first 
parliament met, May 9 ; first ministry formed by Edmund Barton. 
Oct. 31. Union of Free and United Presbyterians in Scotland. Thirty 
ministers and 100 congregations of the Free church refused 
to accede to the union, and the House of Lords (Aug. 1, 1904) 
decided they were the legal holders of all of the property of 
the Free church. 
Dec. 3. Fifteenth (27th imperial) parliament of Victoria ; gov- 
ernment majority, 134. 



572 Modern History. A. d. 

1901 — x. Expeditions by British and Abyssinians against the Mullah in 
Somaliland. A force of British, Indians, Boers, and natives, 
under gen. Manning was in the field in 1902. British defeated, 
Oct. 6, 1902. 

Jan. 22. f Queen Victoria ; succeeded by her son as 

1901-1910. Edward VII. 

March 15. Population of all India, 294,361,056. 

April 1. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 41,607,552. 

July 22. House of Lords decided that trade unions could be sued as 
corporations (Taff Vale case). 

Nov. 18. Abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (p. 593). 

1902. Renewed trouble in Ireland over rent questions, influ- 
enced also by pro-Boer demonstrations. Members of parlia- 
ment convicted for conspiracy under the summary jurisdiction 
of the crimes act of 1887. Industrial depression in England. 

Jan. 30. Defensive alliance "with Japan as to the eastern ques- 
tion (p. 598). 

May 15. Treaty signed with Abyssinia ; Soudan boundary, railway. 

March 26. f Rhodes. His will provided for the education of colonial, 
American, and German students at Oxford {Rhodes scholar- 
ships). 

July 11. Resignation of lord Salisbury. A. J. Balfour, prime 
minister ; George Wyndham (Ireland). 

Aug. 9. Coronation of Edward VII. 

Oct. 31. First message sent over British Pacific cable between Canada 
and Australia, completing the all British cable round the world. 

1902, Nov., 1903, March. Visit of Chamberlain to South Africa on 

an official tour of investigation and to promote reconciliation 

and unity. 
Nov. 21. Lord Tennyson appointed governor-general of Australia. 
Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). 
Dec. 10. Opening of the Assuan dam on the Nile. 
Dec. 19. Education act for England and Wales received royal 

assent. Voluntary (denominational) schools entitled to public 

support on equal footing with board schools ; local councils to 

control aided schools in secular matters. Passive resistance 

by nonconformists. 
Dec. 21. Wireless telegraphic messages exchanged between England 

and Canada. 

1903. Cape to Cairo railway completed to near the Zambesi. 
Agitation in South Africa for coolie labor in the mines. Dec. 

30, favorable vote by the legislative council of Transvaal, and 
first Chinese arrived on June 22, 1904. 

May 5. Declaration by lord Lansdowne, foreign minister, as to 
British control of Persian gulf. 

May 15. Secretary Chamberlain began his campaign for imperial 
unification through a colonial preferential tariff. The 
ministry divided on the question ; Balfour showed leanings 
toward a retaliatory tariff. Sept. 9 Chamberlain resigned 
from the cabinet, as did several free trade members. 



A. d. Continental Europe. 573 

Aug. 8. Lord Norihcote appointed governor-general of Australia. 

Aug. 11. Prohibition of bounty-fed sugar (p. 584). 

Aug. 14. Irish land purchase act received royal assent. Three 
methods of non-compulsory sale to tenants: (1) As under 
former law (p. 567) ; (2) sale of entire estate to tenants at 
annuity less than present rent; (3) sale to aland commission 
for resale to tenants. Landlords paid in cash, the govern- 
ment issuing British bonds for that purpose. 

Aug. 22. f Lord Salisbury. 

July-x. Thibet mission. China and Thibet agreed to send com- 
missioners to meet the British commissioner, col. F. E. Young- 
husband, at Kamba (July) to discuss frontier and trade rela- 
tions; but failed (as often before) to do so. Preparations 
were made to advance the mission under military protection 
to Lhasa, and movement began Dec. 11. 

Oct. 14. General arbitration treaty with France signed; phase of 
a rapprochement shown also in official visits of king Edward to 
Paris (May 1) and president Loubet to London (July 6). 

Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary award announced (p. 594). (See p. 599.) 

§9. CONTINENTAL EUROPE. (See pp. 526, 535.) 
1883-1903. 

1883, Jan. 16. Manifesto and arrest of prince Napoleon Bon- 
aparte (Plon-Plon) (released Feb. 9), followed by attempt 
to expel the princes. Resignation of ministry Duclerc 
(Jan. 28) and ministry Fallieres (Feb. 21). Ministry Ferry 
took office (Feb. 21); Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), Tirard 
(finance). Princes placed in inactivity. 

Feb. 8-March 10. An international conference at London regulated 
the navigation of the Danube. 

March 15. Triple alliance (Dreibund) of Germany, Austria, and 
Italy, acknowledged in Italy. 

May-July. Railway convention in France; abandonment of Frey- 
cinet's policy of state ownership. 

May 31. German act prescribing the insurance of workmen against 
illness (Krankenkassengesetz)', employer to pay \ of premium. 
In 1888, 5,400,000 insured. 

May 2. Consecration of the tzar Alexander III. at Moscow. 

June 13. French occupied Tamatave in Madagascar- continued 
resistance of the Hovas. 

Anti-Semitism in Hungary; accusations of ritual murder; severe 
persecutions at Pressburg and elsewhere. 

Aug. 24. f Count of Chambord (" Henry V."). Legitimists acknowl- 
edged the count of Paris (table, p. 528). 

Aug. 25. Preliminary peace between France and Anam ; French 
protectorate. War with Black Flags continued. 

Sept. 29. Alfonso XII. of Spain insulted by a mob in Paris for hav- 
ing received the honorary colonelcy of a German regiment 
stationed at Strasburg. 

Dec. 17. Visit of the German crown prince to the pope (" sec- 



574 Modern History. A. d. 

ond journey to Canossa"). The German government had 
gradually withdrawn from the position of the May laws, as 
Bismarck found support of catholics necessary. 

1884. In Belgiumthe extension of the suffrage was followed by a cath- 
olic reaction; communes allowed to adopt clerical schools. 

Feb. 11. Annexation of Merv and Sarakhs by Russia, bringing 
the frontier within 200 miles of Herat. 

June 26. Under the liberal minister Sverdrup royal assent was 
given to an act for a responsible ministry in Norway. 

May 11. Treaty of Tientsin between France and China; China to 
retire from Tonquin and respect French protectorate over 
Anam. Definitive treaty with Anam, June 6; also with Cam- 
bodia, June 17. Dispute over construction of Chinese treaty, 
and direct war. French attacked Formosa (Aug. 3) and 
Fuchau (Aug. 23). 

June 27. Workmen's accident insurance act ( Unfallversicherungsge- 
setz) enacted in Germany. In 1888, 10,340,000 insured. 

July 28. Earthquake at Ischia; 2000 killed. 

Aug. French constitution revised; republican form of govern- 
ment not subject to future proposals of revision, princes not 
eligible for the presidency. Reform in the organization of the 
senate (Dec.) ; proportional representation in the electoral con- 
gress, no more life members to be created. 
The establishment of the Deutsche Colonialverein in 1882 
foreshadowed German imperialism. In Jan. 1884, Bis- 
marck announced the protectorate over Angra Pequena in 
southwestern Africa. After a controversy with Great Britain 

Aug. 13. the protectorate was extended from Cape Frio to Orange 
River (except Walfish Bay), and over Kamerun and Togoland. 
Bismarck's policy was to protect mercantile undertakings 
rather than to inaugurate state colonization. 

Aug. 18. Vatican library opened to scholars for research. 

Oct. 28. Elections for the German Reichstag; gains by conserva- 
tives and socialists. 

1885. Hereditary house of peers abolished in Portugal; house of 
100 life peers and 50 elective peers substituted. 

Jan., Feb. Italy, after an understanding with England (Jan. 1, 

1884), occupied Assab and Massawa. Unfriendly relations 

with king John of Abyssinia. 
Jan., Feb. Earthquakes in Spain, great loss of life; cholera. 
Feb. 17. Imperial charter granted to German East Africa Company. 
Feb. 26. General act of Congo conference signed at Berlin. 

Provisions for freedom of trade, eradication of slave trade, 

neutrality of the basin, and regulation of future occupations 

on coast of Africa. 
March 30. Resignation of ministry Ferry in France in consequence 

of defeat in Tonquin. Ministry Brisson (justice) formed; 

Freycinet (foreign), Sadi-Carnot (public works, later, finance). 
Russia at Penjdeh (p. 566). 
May. In Germany, increase in agrarian duties. 
May. Recidivist law in France ; transportation of habitual criminals, 



A. d. Continental Europe. 575 

June 8. Adoption of the scrutin de liste (note, p. 533) in the election 
of deputies in France. 

June 9. Franco-Chinese treaty of peace, recognizing the treaty of 
Tientsin. 

Aug. 25. Germany took possession of the Caroline Islands, but the 
pope, as referee, upheld Spain's protest (Oct. 22). 

Sept. 13-17. Revolution in East Rumelia ; allegiance offered to 
Alexander of Bulgaria, 1 who accepted the crown under the 
suzerainty of the Porte. The union was distasteful to the sig- 
natory powers (except England), but the sultan accepted the 
personal union in the end. Meanwhile Servia and Greece were 
arming, and 

Nov. 13. Servia declared war and suffered defeat at Slivnitza 
in Bulgaria (Nov. 14-20). The Bulgarian counter-invasion 
was stopped by Austria, and an armistice signed, Dec. 27. 

Nov. 25. f Alfonso XII. of Spain ; queen Maria Christina regent ; 
prime minister Canovas, with Campos and Sagasta at inter- 
vals. 

Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 46,885,704. 

Dec. 17. French treaty with Madagascar; protectorate, but not ac- 
knowledged by the Hovas. 

Dec. 28. Re-election of president Grevy. Oct. elections showed 
increase in monarchists. Ministry Brisson resigned, and min- 
istry Freycinet (foreign) formed (Jan. 7, 1886); Sadi-Carnot 
(finance), Boulanger (war). 

1886, March 3. The powers force a treaty of peace between Ser- 

via and Bulgaria at Constantinople. Greece continued to 

arm for the occupation of Macedonia until 
May 10-June 7. the allied fleet blockaded her ports. 
April 5. Protocol of the powers ; prince of Bulgaria to be governor 

of East Rumelia. 
May 31. Population of France, 38,218,903. 
May 17. Birth of Alfonso XIII. of Spain. 
June 22. Expulsion of the French princes. 
Aug. 22. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria kidnapped by Russian 

sympathizers. A provisional government under Stambouloff 

arrested the revolutionary leaders, and the prince returned 

Aug. 28 ; but on Sept. 3, in consequence of the displeasure 

of the tzar, he abdicated. 
Oct. 3. Law regulating primary instruction in France. 

1887, Jan. 14. German army increased from 427,000 to 468,000 men 

because of the military activity of France and Russia. 

April 21. The arrest on a charge of espionage of the French com- 
missioner Schnabele by Germans but on French soil aroused 
mnch excitement (released April 29). 

May 30. Ministry Rouvier (finance); Ferron (war). The change 
was due to conservative distrust of the intentions of Boulan- 
ger, who continued to increase his popularity. 

June. Renewal of the triple alliance causes increase in Italian army 
to 252,000 men. 
1 Of the house of Battenberg, elected prince of Bulgaria in May, 1879. 



576 Modern History. A. D. 

July 7. Prince Ferdinand of Coburg elected prince of Bulgaria 
in spite of Russia's refusal to recognize the election. 

July 27. Death of the Italian prime minister, Dupretis ; Crispi suc- 
ceeded him, Rudini and Giolitti at intervals. 

Oct. A scandal in France over the sale of decorations and other 
jobbery affecting Grdvy's son-in-law resulted in the fall of the 
Rouvier ministry and the resignation of Gr^vy (Dec. 1). 

Dec. 3. Election of Sadi-Carnot as president. Dec. 12, ministry 
Tirard (finance); Failures (justice), Flourens (foreign). 

1888, Jan. Papal jubilee. 

March 9. f "William I. German emperor ; succeeded by his son as 

1888, March-June. Frederick III. The emperor, suffering 
from cancer, f June 15, and was succeeded by his son 

1888, June -x. William II. 

March 19. A period of five years instead of three adopted for the 
German Reichstag. 

March 21. Gen. Boulanger on account of political intrigues and 
disregard of discipline, was removed from the French army. 
Ministry Tirard succeeded by the ministry Floquet (interior) on 
April 3; Freycinet (war). Boulanger elected to the Chamber 
of Deputies by a large majority ; he declared himself in 
favor of a revision of the constitution. 

May 27. Completion of the Sarmarkand section of the Transcauca- 
sian railway. 

Aug. 14. Von Moltke resigned as chief-of -staff of the German 
army. The publication in Sept. of extracts from the diary of 
Frederick III. indicated that the establishment of the empire was 
due in good part to his initiative. Bismarck declared the ex- 
tracts had been interpolated, but their genuineness was shown. 

Oct. 29. Suez canal convention signed at Constantinople ; free navi- 
gation. 
Completion of the Eastern railway connecting Constantinople 

with Calais. 
Upon the receipt of remonstrances from Austria, Germany, and 
Russia against asylum to political offenders in Sivitzerland, that 
country voted 16,000,000 francs for military supplies. 

1889, Jan. 30. Suicide of crown prince Rudolf of Austria. 

Archduke Carl Ludwig, brother of the emperor, transferred his 
right of succession to his son archduke Ferdinand. 
Adoption of the zone railway tariff in Hungary. -.<j 
Feb. Popularity of Boulanger increased ; he was elected to the 
assembly from Paris in Jan. by a large majority. Floquet 
secured a return to the scrutin d'arrondissement (note, p. 533), 
but was defeated on a proposal for revision. Ministry Tirard 
(commerce) formed on Feb. 22 ; Rouvier (finance), Constans 
(interior), Freycinet (war), Thevenet (justice), Fallieres (in- 
struction). The new government at once took up the repres- 
sion of the Boulangist movement ; Boulanger, Dillon, and 
Rochefort fled (April), and while absent were condemned by 
the senate of an attempt against the security of the state (Aug). 



A. d. Continental Europe. 577 

March 7. Abdication of king Milan of Servia in favor of his son 

Alexander; queen Natalie banished. 
May 6. International exposition opened at Paris in commemoration 

of the revolution of 1789. Eiffel tower, 984 feet. 
May 24. Aged and indigent workmen's insurance act adopted in Ger- 
many. 
June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 587). 

July. Electoral reform in France ; plural candidacy abolished. In 
Sept. and Oct. the elections showed decided republican gains, 
and interest in Boulanger visibly declined. 
Oct. 9. f Dom Luis, king of Portugal ; succeeded by his son 

Carlos I. 
1890-1903. A period throughout Europe of much social unrest, 
indicated by anarchistic, socialistic, and anti-Semitic agitations 
which assumed acute phases especially noticed. Strikes were frequent 
and usually of political significance. In Germany and in Russia (espe- 
cially under Witte) industrial development was forced, and a policy of 
naval expansion entered upon. In France, in spite of setbacks, the 
republican government was strengthened. Foreign interests shifted from 
the near to the far East, and the political map of Africa was more 
clearly marked. 

1890. March 18. Resignation of Bismarck in consequence of dif- 

ferences of opinion with the emperor. He was created duke 
of Lauenburg and retired to Friedrichsruhe. Von Caprivi 
appointed chancellor. 

March 15-19. International labor conference at Berlin at sugges- 
tion of the emperor ; recommendations with regard to labor of 
women and children, and Sunday labor. 

July 1. Anglo-German treaty; Heligoland and Africa (p. 567). 

July. In Russia enforcement of the May laws of 1882 ; Jews 
forbidden to reside in the rural districts, to own or farm land, 
to enjoy educational advantages, to practice law or engineer- 
ing, to act as army doctors, or to hold any government position. 

Aug. 5. Franco-British African convention (p. 567). 

Nov. 23. f William III. of the Netherlands ; queen Emma regent for 
his daughter Wilhelmina. Luxemburg passed to Adolf of 
Nassau. 

Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 49,428,470. 

Dec. 31. Population of Austria-Hungary, 41,231,342. 

1891. Radicals gained control in Norway, advocating universal 
suffrage, and separate consuls and foreign office. Through 
various ministries this agitation has continued. 

March 17. f Prince Napoleon Bonaparte at Rome. 
March 24. Anglo-Italian protocol on Africa (p. 567). 
April 12. Population of France, 38,342,948. 
June 11. Anglo-Portuguese African convention (p. 567). 
July, Aug. French fleet at Cronstadt visited by the tzar ; demon- 
strations of friendship between Russia and France. 
Sept. 30. Suicide of Boulanger at Brussels. 

1892. Cholera and distress ; activity of anarchists. 

Jan. 11. French protective tariff ; regular and minimum rates. 



578 Modern History. a. d. 

Feb. 1. New German commercial treaties became operative ; hostile 

to agrarian interests. 
Feb. 16. Papal encyclical to French catholics ; republic to be 

unreservedly recognized. 
Feb. 28. Change in French ministry on question of associations bills ; 

ministry Loubet (interior); Freycinet (war), Ribot (foreign). 
Nov. 22-Dec. 17. International monetary conference at Brussels at 

invitation of the United States ; no results on bimetallism. 
Dec. 3. French protectorate over Dahomey. 
1892-1893. Panama scandal in France. A French company 

having secured from Colombia the right to build a ship canal 
(May 18, 1878), de Lesseps undertook the task. Company declared 
bankrupt, Feb. 4, 1889 ; of 1,434,000,000 fr. disbursed only 560,000,- 
000 fr. had been spent on the canal and much of this misappropri- 
ated. Exposure of great fraud, blackmail, and bribery, inculpating 
legislators and former ministers (Nov. 1892) ; ministry reconstructed 
under Ribot (Dec. 5), and again, Jan. 12, 1893, without Loubet and 
Freycinet, Dupuy (education). Trials and confessions followed (Jan., 
March). The company was reorganized, but sold out (p. 593). 

1893. Bank scandal in Italy (Panamino), involving premier Gio- 
litti and ex-premiers Crispi and Rudini. Crispi formed a new 
ministry (Dec. 14). Financial and monetary disturbances 
during the year ; deficit, $35,000,000. Socialistic disturb- 
ances in Sicily. 

Feb. 19. Episcopal golden jubilee of Leo XIII. 

April 13. Coup d'e'tat in Servia; Alexander deposed his regents and 
took personal charge of the government. 

May 6. German Reichstag, having refused to vote an increase of the 
army, was dissolved. The New Reichstag, showing increase 
of socialists, passed the act (promulgated Aug. 3), providing 
for 479,000 men. 

Aug. Tariff war between Russia and Germany, ending in a commer- 
cial treaty (Feb. 10, 1894), reducing duties on German manu- 
factures and Russian grain • agrarian opposition in Germany. 

Sept. 7. Amendments to Belgian constitution sanctioned ; universal 
male suffrage with system of plural votes ; senate reorgan- 
ized. 

Oct. 3. Franco-Siamese treaty of peace (p. 595). 

1894, March 15. Franco-German convention ; boundaries of French 

Congo and Kamerun, spheres of influence about lake Chad. 
May 28. Ministry Dupuy (interior) formed ; Poincare (finances), 

Delcasse (colonies), Guerin (justice), Hanotaux (foreign), 

Faure (marine), Mercier (war). 
June 21. Compulsory civil marriage in Hungary. 
June 24. President Sadi-Carnot assassinated by an anarchist at 

Lyons. 
June 27. Casimir-Fe*rier elected president of France. 
June 29. French law for compulsory insurance of miners • employers 

to pay \ of premium. 
Sept. f Count of Paris ; succeeded in his claim by his son the due 

d' Orleans. 



A. d. Armenian Massacres. 579 

Sept. 29. Completion of the North Sea-Baltic (Kiel) ship canal, 

61 miles long ; formal opening, June 19-22, 1895. 
Oct. 15. Capt. Alfred Dreyius, of the general staff of the French 
army, an Alsatian Jew, arrested on accusation of sending 
military secrets to the Germans, as shown by a letter in his 
handwriting (bordereau). Dreyfus was convicted by a secret court- 
martial (Dec. 22) on the divided opinion of graphologists, the perjured 
testimony of major Henry, and the contents of a secret "dossier" pre- 
pared by the minister of war, Mercier, and submitted privately to 
the judges. He was publicly degraded (Jan. 5, 1895) and sentenced 
to perpetual imprisonment on Devil's Island. The affair became a 
political matter, involving anti-Semitism and the relation of the 
army to the republic. 
Oct. 26. Resignation of chancellor v. Caprivi ; succeeded by 

prince v. Hohenlohe. 
Nov. 1. f Tzar Alexander III. of Russia ; succeeded by his son 

1894-X. Nicholas II. 

Dec. 27. Convention deliminating the possessions of Congo and 
French Congo. 

1894-1896. Armenian Massacres. Causes : religious 
and racial antipathy; an energetic people under the rule of a 
quietistic government ; abuses, misrule, and forced conversion 
to Mohammedanism ; Armenian plots against Turkish rule. 
In Aug. 1894, Kurds and Turkish soldiers plundered many 
villages in Sasun and massacred thousands of Armenians. 
After investigations, England, France, and Russia (under 
treaty of Berlin) 

1895, May 11. presented a project of reform to the Porte, and 

after much friction an irade was issued (Oct. 17) ordering the 
reforms proposed. Meanwhile 
Sept. 30, an Armenian demonstration at Constantinople provoked a 
riot, and as a result of this Kurds, Circassians, and Turkish 
soldiers began to massacre the Armenians in the pro- 
vinces included in the reform irade, which continued through- 
out the year, and resulted in the murder of over 25,000 and 
destitution for hundreds of thousands as the result of pillage. 
Foreign relief expeditions were sent to the desolated districts 
(1896). Disturbances continued, especially at Van (June) 
between Mohammedans and revolutionists. 

1896, Aug. 26. An attack on the Ottoman bank at Constantinople by 

Armenians, caused a general attack on Armenians by organized 
bands of Mussulmans, which continued several days. Wholesale 
arrests of Armenians at the capital, and many thousands fled. 
Dec. 22. A general amnesty was issued covering all Mohammedans 
and most of the Armenians. Reforms put in operation, call- 
ing for Christian officials and gendarmes, control over the Kurds, 
and tax reforms; of little practical effect. Action of the 
powers hampered by lack of unity, fear of international compli- 
cations, and condition of Turkish finances. England's policy 
checked by the results. 



580 v Modern History. A. d. 

1895. Naval increase in Germany, to protect commercial ex- 
pansion. Agrarian agitation for state monopoly in foreign 
cereals. 

Jan. 14. Resignation of ministry Dupuy; financial scandals. Also 
Jan. 15. resignation of Casimir-Perier because of hostile criti- 
cism. 
Jan. 17. Felix Faure elected president of France. 
Jan. 21. Anglo-French agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland. 
Jan. 26. Ministry Ribot (finance) formed ; Hanotaux (foreign), 

Poincare (education). 
Feb. Revolt in Cuba (p. 590). 
March 11. Russian and English spheres of influence in the Pamirs 

deliminated. 
April 7. Nansen reached 86° 14' ; farthest north. 
April 12. Interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty (p. 596). 
May 11. Anti-revolutionary bill (Umsturzvorlage) against socialists in 

Germany dropped because open to too general application; 

continuation of lese-majeste prosecutions. 
July 15. Stambouloff, anti-Russian leader in Bulgaria (premier, 

1887-94), attacked, by assassins; f July 18. 
Sept. 30. French occupy capital of Madagascar after an advance 

of several months from the coast. Treaty of peace (Oct. 1); 

protectorate. 
Nov. 2. Radical ministry Bourgeois (interior) formed ; Cavaignac 

(war), Berthelot (foreign), Combes (education). 
Dee. 2. Population of Germany, 52,279,915. 

1896. Agricultural depression throughout Europe. 

Electoral reform in the Netherlands - suffrage made dependent 

on educational or financial tests. 
Italy, claiming a protectorate over Abyssinia, advanced troops 
(1895) to annex it to Eritrea. King Menelek surprised them, 
compelled the evacuation of Makaleh (Jan. 23, 1896), and de- 
feated them in the 

March 1. battle of Adua (Adoioa). Crispi's ministry fell (March 5) 
and Rudini, the new premier ("peace with honor"), withdrew 
the forces. At the peace of Addi's Abeda (Oct. 26) Italy 
acknowledged the full independence of Abyssinia. 

Jan. 15. Anglo-French agreement on Siam (p. 596). 

Feb. Austrian Reichsrath introduced general suffrage for -| of 
members of the house; remainder still elected by \ of the 
electors. 

Feb. 14. Baptism of prince Boris, heir apparent of Bulgaria, in the 
Greek church • restoration of Russian ascendency. 

March 29. Population of France, 38,517,957. 

April 28. Ministry Meline (agriculture), succeeds ministry Bour- 
geois; Hanotaux (foreign). 

May 16. Hungarian parliament passed a law recognizing the Jewish 
faith. 

May 26. Consecration of Nicholas II. at Moscow; disaster in the 
crowd (May 30). 

Aug. 6. Madagascar declared a French colony. 



A. d. Turco-Greek War. 581 

Sept. 26. Opening of the Iron Gates of the Danube. 
Oct. Visit of the tzar to France. 

1896-1899. Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek War. 
In Crete a Christian (Greek) insurrection began in May, 
1896, against Turkish rule. The 
1897, Feb. 7. insurgents proclaimed union -with Greece, and 
Greece landed troops, refusing to withdraw at the order of 
the powers (Feb. 18), who had assumed joint occupation 
of the island and 
March 2. presented an ultimatum; no annexation to Greece, but 
Crete to have an effective autonomous government. Greece 
still refused to withdraw (March 8), and the powers announced 
the blockade of Crete. 
Public opinion in Greece forced the government into a war with 
Turkey, for which she was utterly unprepared. The conflict 
began on the Thessalonian frontier on April 16, and 
April 17. Turkey declared -war, her forces, under Edhem Pasha, 
driving the Greeks out of the Milouna pass (April 18), and 
causing a general retirement, though unsuccessful at Raveni 
pass (April 19). The Greeks, under the crown prince, seized 
with panic, 
April 25. evacuated Larissa and retreated to the Karditsa-Volos 
line. The Greek ministry was dismissed and Athens almost in 
revolt. Meanwhile the Greeks had invaded Epirus from Arta (April 
20), but were driven back by Osman Pasha (April 28). Karditsa was 
abandoned on the advance of Edhem Pasha; May 5 the Greeks were 
driven from Fersala and Velestino, and May 8 the Turks entered 
Volos. Fighting closed with the further retreat of the Greeks from 
Domokos to Lamia (May 17). 

May 10. Greece consented to withdraw from Crete and was ready 

for mediation, which the powers offered to Turkey. Russia 

and Austria had ordered the Balkan states to keep out of the 

war (April 29), and now at a hint from the tzar the 

May 18. Porte suspended hostilities. Turkey was not allowed 

to profit by her victories. By the 
Dec. 4. treaty of peace at Constantinople, the frontier was rectified 
(Turkey gained control of the passes), and Greece paid an 
indemnity of $17,600,000. A commission of the powers assumed con- 
trol of Greek revenues sufficient to pay this and the old Greek loans. 

Meanwhile in Crete the settlement made little progress, though 
the Christian assembly accepted autonomy (Aug. 26) and the powers 
increased their zone of occupation. The powers failed to agree 
among themselves or with Turkey, and Germany and Austria with- 
drew. Turkey wished to keep troops on the island as a mark of her 
suzerainty and have the Christian governor her subject ; but the with- 
drawal of her troops was forced (Nov. 12, 1898) after a Moslem 
attack on the British troops and Christians at Candia (Sept. 6), and 
1898, Dec. 21. Prince George of Greece was made governor- 
general by the powers. A constitution, drawn up by a native 
commission, was accepted by the four powers (Russia, Great Britain, 



582 Modern History. a. d. 

Italy, France) and the Cretan assembly (April, 1899). Many desti- 
tute Mohammedans emigrated. 

1897, Feb. 9. Population of Russian empire, 129,004,514. 

April 5. By ministerial decree in Austria Czech (Bohemian) was 

placed on an official equality with German in Bohemia. A 
race war followed in Bohemia. In the Reichsrath violence and o&- 
struction by the Germans produced a deadlock which continued during 
1898 and 1899 and made necessary legislation by decree under a 
temporary suspension of the constitution. The Ausgleich was thus 
renewed as a modus vivendi. Matters were complicated by socialism 
and anti-Semitism. In Hungary there was opposition to the renewal 
of the Ausgleich. The repeal of the language ordinance (July 20, 
1930) was followed $y obstruction by the young Czechs. 
July 23. Convention defining the boundary of French Dahomey and 

German Togoland. 
Aug. Visit of the president of France to Russia; the tzar toasted 

the " allied " nation (Aug. 26). 
Dec. 2. Gold standard adopted in Russia. 
1898-1899. Dreyfus affair. An attempt by col. Picquart to re-open 

the Dreyfus case (p. 579), with proof that the dossier con- 
tained nothing applicable to him and that the bordereau was written 
by another officer (Esterhazy), was met by an attempt to discredit 
Picquart and his evidence by forgeries made by Henry, acquittal of 
Esterhazy by court-martial (Jan. 11, 1898), the declaration that the 
case was une chose jugee, and that the Dreyfusards (including Zola) 
were trying to dishonor the army. Public opinion, led by the 
Patriotic League, anti-Semites, army officers, and reactionists, became 
rabid against the revisionists. But Henry confessed to the forgeries 
and committed suicide (Aug. 31), and the prime minister (Brisson) 
now favored a revision; but while the court of cassation was con- 
sidering the question, the ministry resigned after a vote virtually 
accusing them of permitting attacks on the army, and the ministry 
Dupuy with Freycinet as war minister succeeded (Oct. 30). The 
court of cassation (June 3, 1899) ordered a new court-martial, 
declaring the bordereau to be Esterhazy's work and the secret dossier 
without reference to Dreyfus, but the new court-martial renewed the 
conviction (Sept. 9). Meanwhile the agitation had endangered the 
stability of the republic, and the ministry Dupuy (" trimmers ") 
was replaced (June 22) by the ministry Waldeck-Rousseau 
(interior) ; Delcasse (foreign), Gallifet, later Andre (war). This was 
known as the ministry of republican defense, and it steadily 
repressed the " affair." Dreyfus was pardoned (Sept. 19), the leaders 
of militarism transferred and subdued, and an act of amnesty passed 
(Dec. 24, 1900). 

1898, Feb. 20. Referendum in Switzerland voted in favor of state 
ownership of railways. 

April-August. Spanish-American war (p. 590). 

May. Distress in Italy led to strikes and riots, assuming, under 
socialistic and clerical encouragement, a political character t 
amounting in Milan (May 6-8) to an insurrection. 



A. d. Continental Europe. 583 

June. Elections for German Reichstag showed increase of social 
democrats ; but little increase of agrarians. 

June 14. Franco-British convention on spheres of influence about 
Niger river. 

July 17. Italian law for pension fund for workpeople ; national sub- 
vention of members of the fund. 

July 30. f Bismarck. 

Aug. 31. Accession of queen Wilhelmina. 

Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident (p. 569). 

Sept. 10. Empress of Austria assassinated by an anarchist. 

Oct.-Nov. Visit of the German emperor to Constantinople and the 
Holy Land. 

1899, Jan. 25. The speech from the throne to the Finnish diet an- 

nounced that the military service of Finland would be 
made uniform with that of the rest of the empire. Feb. 15, 
an imperial manifesto displayed the intention of using auto- 
cratic authority over legislation respecting Finland, leav- 
ing to the diet only the right of consultation. 
Feb. 16. f x President Faure. 

Feb. 18. Emile Loubet elected president of France. 
May 18-July 29. Hague peace conference. Aug. 24 and Dec. 
30, 1898, the tzar of Russia proposed a conference to consider 
limitation of armaments, arbitration, and laivs of war. The conference 
was attended by representatives of European nations, United States, 
Japan, China, Persia, and Siam. No conclusion was reached as to re- 
duction of armaments, but conventions signed: (1) for a permanent 
court of international arbitration at the Hague and friendly 
mediation; (2) on laws and customs of war on land; (3) extending 
the Geneva convention to maritime warfare ; and also declarations 
prohibiting the use of special means of destruction. 
June, July. Socialistic demonstration in Belgium against the govern- 
ment's electoral bill ; in Brussels fierce rioting. Ministry 
resigned (Aug. 1) and the new ministry carried through a 
law for proportional representation (Dec. 29). 
June 30. Spain ceded the Caroline Islands to Germany. 
Dec. 2. Samoan treaty (p. 592). 

1900, March. Successful obstruction by socialists in the Italian cham- 

ber of deputies of a drastic bill for the public safety, the out- 
come of the disturbances of 1898. 

April 14. Paris exposition to commemorate the work of the century 
opened. 

June 26. Imperial ukase issued for gradual introduction of Russian 
as the official language in Finland. 

June 27. Franco-Spanish convention deliminating possessions in 
Sahara and on gulf of Guinea. 

July 29. Assassination of king Humbert of Italy by an anarch- 
ist, succeeded by his son 

1900-X. Victor Emmanuel III. 

Sept. First election in Norway under universal manhood (25 
years) suffrage. 



584 Modern History. a. d. 

Oct. 17. Count von Biilow succeeded prince v. Hohenlohe as 
chancellor of the German empire. 

Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 56,367,178. 

1901. Industrial depression in Germany. 

1901-1902. Attempted Germanization of Prussian Poland 
through settlement of German proprietors and language de- 
crees made little progress against opposition. 

1901-1903. In Jan., 1901, revolt of students throughout Russia; 
Bogolepoff, minister of education, assassinated (Feb. 27). Tolstoi 
excommunicated (Feb. 25). Trouble renewed at the end of 
year, assisted by workmen and with revolutionary purposes. 
Sipiagin, minister of the interior, was assassinated, April 15, 
1902, and so was his successor, Plehve (July 26, 1904). Labor 
strikes followed, a novelty in Russia, due to over-stimulation 
and collapse of manufacturing enterprises. Distress and 
famine caused agrarian agitation and sacking of large estates 
(April, 1902). 

1901 — x. Macedonian revolt, headed by Bulgarian revolutionists 
(Boris Sara/of), which, with the conduct of the Turkish 
troops, produced a reign of terror. Russia and Austria up- 
held the status quo and presented a scheme of reform to the 
sultan (Oct. 24, 1903) which he accepted. 

1901, Feb. 10. Population of Italy, 32,475,253. 
March 24. Population of France, 38,961,945. 

April 19. A liberal constitution decree in Servia, creating a senate. 

June 25. Army reorganization law in Sweden • compulsory service. 

July 1. Associations law in France. Causes : attitude of clergy 
in Dreyfus affair ; teachings of the regular clergy considered 
reactionary ; "too many monks in business, and too many monks 
in politics." All religious associations and their establishments 
must be authorized by the state; all unauthorized ones after 
Oct. 1 to be considered dissolved. Many congregations, espe- 
cially the Jesuits, transferred their property beyond France 
before that date. The law was construed strictly, especially 
against associations engaged in teaching and business (Char- 
treuse). 

July 11. Imperial edict deprived Finnish army of its national charac- 
ter ; attempt at recruiting at Helsingfors failed (April 17, 
1902). 

Aug. 26. Rupture of Franco-Turkish diplomatic relations over 
claims and French religious orders. Nov. 7, naval demonstra- 
tion. The Porte yielded and also recognized French pro- 
tection of catholics in the East. 

1902, 1903. Famine in Sweden and Finland. 

1902, Jan. Completion of the Transsiberian railway. 

Jan. 16. Turkish irade for a German railway across Asia Minor to 

Persian gulf. 
March 5. Brussels sugar convention signed by most European states, 

abolishing bounties; in effect Sept. 1. Great Britain (Aug. 

11) forbade import of bounty-fed sugar. 
April. A general strike in Belgium against plural suffrage failed. 



A. d. Continental Europe. 585 

April, May. French elections, hearty support of the government. 

May 7. Eruption of Mount Pelee, Martinique ; destruction of St. 
Pierre. 

May 17. Accession of Alfonso XIII. of Spain. 

June 3. Resignation of ministry Waldeck-Rousseau ; succeeded by 
ministry Combes (interior, worship) on June 7 ; Delcasse 
(foreign), Andre (war), Rouvier (finance). 

June 7. German Reichstag assented to the abolition of the dictator 
paragraph (state of siege) in Alsace-Lorraine. 

June 28. Triple alliance renewed at Berlin. 

July. Riots in Brittany and Savoy against the closing of unauthorized 
religious schools. About 3000 schools closed in France. 

Sept. 30. Further Russification of Finland. Edicts issued giv- 
ing governor-general power to appoint officials and remove 
judges; Russian to be the official language Oct. 1, 1903. 
Russian espionage and Cossacks employed. Great emigra- 
tion. Bodrikoff, governor general, assassinated, June 16, 
1904. 

Dec. Coercion of Venezuela. Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, 
presenting claims, blockaded Venezuela. United States re- 
fused to interfere so long as no permanent occupation was 
attempted, but through its good offices the Hague tribunal was 
asked to decide whether coercing powers should have prefer- 
ence over other claimants (Feb. 13, 1903), and the blockade 
was raised. Claims conventions. 

Dec. 14. Tariff bill passed the German Reichstag; minimum duties 
on agricultural products raised. 

1903. In France an agitation developed for separation of church and 
state and denunciation of the Concordat (p. 463) ; members of 
dissolved congregations denied the right to preach in the 
parishes. The visit of the king of Italy to Paris (Oct. 14), 
and the Franco-Italian general arbitration treaty (Dec. 25) 
harmonized with this movement. 

Feb. 20. Silver jubilee of papacy of Leo XIII. 

March 5. Bagdad railway convention signed at Constantinople. 

April. In Servia king Alexander, not receiving the support of the radi- 
cals, suspended the new constitution. June 11 he and queen 
Draga were murdered by army officers. Feter Kara- 
georgevitch, the rival claimant, elected to succeed (June 
15). 

April 19, 20. Planned riot against the Jews at Kishinef, Russia, 
the authorities sympathizing with the rioters. The affair 
attracted world-wide attention. Sept. 14, similar riot at Gomel. 

July 20. f Leo XIII.; Pius X. (Sarto), patriarch of Venice, elected 
to succeed, Aug. 4. 

Sept. 14. Emperor Francis-Joseph sharply denounced the demand 
of the Kossuthites for use of Hungarian in the army. Ministe- 
rial crisis. 

Oct. 14. Franco-British general arbitration treaty (p. 573). (See 
p. 599.) 



586 Modern History. a. d. 

§ 10. UNITED STATES. (See p. 560.) 

1883-1903. 

1883, Beginning of the new steel navy (" white squadron "). 
March 3. Tariff act; protection principle maintained. 

May 24. Opening of the New York-Brooklyn suspension bridge. 

1884, June 6. Republican convention at Chicago nominated /. G. 

Blaine for president ; protective platform. The democrats nom- 
inated Grover Cleveland at Chicago, July 11, and advocated tax- 
ation/or revenue only. Both platforms supported civil service 
reform. Campaign of much personality. Democrats suc- 
cessful at election (Nov. 4), carrying the pivotal state of New 
York by 1047 votes. Electoral vote, 219-182. 

1885, Feb. 26. Act forbidding importation of contract laborers. 

1885, March 4-1889, March 4. Grover Cleveland (b. 
1837) (New York), democrat, 22d president; T. A. Hen- 
dricks, vice-president (f Nov. 25, 1885); T. F. Bayard, sec- 
retary of state. 

1886, Jan. 19. Presidential succession law; members of the 
cabinet to follow the vice-president in succession. 

March 6-May 3. General strike on the Gould system of railroads; 

rioting suppressed by regulars and militia. Knights of Labor 

controlled the strike. 
May-July. Seizures made of American fishermen in Canadian 

waters, reopening old controversy under convention of 1818 

(p. 552). Retaliatory legislation. 
May 1. Strikes and socialistic demonstrations throughout the country 

for the eight-hour system. 
May 4. Anarchist riot in Haymarket Square, Chicago. 
Aug. 31. Earthquake, much havoc wrought at Charleston. 

1886, 1887. Seizure of British vessels for pelagic sealing in 

Bering sea. A diplomatic discussion covering several years 
followed. 

1887, Feb. 3. Act to regulate the counting of the electoral votes ; 

votes certified by state executives to be counted, unless both 
houses reject them. 

Feb. 4. Interstate commerce act ; regulation of interstate rail- 
road transportation, prevention of discrimination in rates, pool- 
ing, and other abuses ; commission with administrative and 
judicial powers to execute the act. Results under the act have 
been disappointing. 

Dec. 6. The president's annual message to congress was devoted 
entirely to surplus revenue and tariff reform (" it is a con- 
dition which confronts us — not a theory"), making the 
tariff the issue of the next election. 

1888, Feb. 15. A fisheries treaty with Great Britain signed, grant- 

ing certain rights in Canadian inshore in return for free fish. 
The senate rejected the treaty (Aug. 21). 
June 6. Democratic convention renominated Cleveland at St! Louis. 
The republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison at Chicago, 



A. d. United States. 587 

June 25. Tariff the issue, and republicans successful 
(Nov. 6) by 233 electoral votes to 168. 

June 13. Department of labor created, but without a seat in the 
cabinet. 

Oct. 1. Chinese exclusion act made more stringent, after China had 
refused to ratify a treaty for the same purpose ; former resi- 
dent laborers not to be allowed to return. 

1888-1889. Introduction of the Australian ballot ; gradually 
adopted by most of the states. 

1889, Feb. 9. Department of Agriculture authorized. 

1889, March 4-1893, March 4. Benjamin Harrison 
(b. 1833 ; f 1901) (Indiana), republican, 23d president ; Levi 
P. Morton, vice-president ; James G. Blaine, secretary of state 
until June, 1892. 

April 22. Oklahoma opened to settlement; wild rush of settlers. 
Territorial government authorized, May 2, 1890. Population 
(1890), 78,475. 

April 30. Centenary of Washington's inauguration celebrated at 
New York. 

May 31. Destruction of Johnstown, Pa., caused by the bursting of a 
dam ; 2280 perished. 

June 14. Treaty on Samoa signed. United States, Great Britain, 
and Germany united in a declaration recognizing the independ- 
ence and neutrality of the islands and providing for an 
autonomous government under their joint control. 

Oct. 2-1890, April 19. Pan-American Congress of all the Ameri- 
can states except San Domingo met at Washington. Few 
positive results ; reciprocity recommended. Bureau of Ameri- 
can Republics organized (1890) to collect and distribute com- 
mercial information. 

1889, Nov. 2. North Dakota (39th state). 
Nov. 2. South Dakota (40th state). 
Nov. 8. Montana (41st state). 

Nov. 11. Washington (42d state). 

1890-1903. Prominent features of this period were : the advent of 
America as a "world power ; great industrial prosperity 
following a period of depression ; amalgamation of capital, forming 
virtual monopolies and " trusts ; " growth of trade-unionism and 
protracted strikes; corruption in municipal government; development 
of rural communication by means of electric railroads, telephones, and 
free delivery of mail. At the South, a slow betterment in the 
economic condition of the colored race, but constitutional disfran- 
chisement in six states ("grandfather" clause, "understanding" 
clause) and lynching. 

1890, Feb. 14. New rules in the House of Representatives, enabling 

the speaker to include in the quorum those present but not 

voting. 
June 1. Population, 62,979,766 (11th census). 
June 19. Force bill reported in the House, providing for federal 

control of federal elections, and intended to protect negro voters. 



588 Modern History. A. d. 

Passed the House, July 2, but was shelved in the Senate by aid 
of republican votes, Jan. 1891. 

June 27. Disability and dependent pension act ; pensions to 
be paid to all Union veterans incapacitated from earning a living 
by manual labor, and to widows dependent upon their own daily 
toil. Pensions paid, 1889, $89,132,000 ; 1892, $141,087,000. 

July 2. Anti-trust (Sherman) law ; all trusts or combinations to 
restrain or monopolize interstate or foreign trade declared 
illegal. 

July 3. Idaho (43d state). 

July 10. Wyoming (44th state). 

July 14. Sherman silver purchase law ; fixed amount of silver 
to be purchased each month and silver Treasury notes issued 
equal to its bullion value ; notes to be redeemed in coin and 
reissued. 

Oct. 1. McKinley tariff law ; reduction in revenue but increase in 
protection, free raw sugar and bounty on home production, pro- 
vision for limited reciprocity treaties, several of which were 
concluded. 

1891, March 3. International copyright law. 

March 14. Lynching in New Orleans of Italians, members of the 

" Mafia." Italy protested and closed her legation (March 31). 

April 12, 1892, the United States paid an indemnity. 
June 15. Modus vivendi with Great Britain on Bering sea sealing. 
Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors in Valparaiso by mob and police, 

resulting from conditions during a recent civil war in Chile. 

War imminent, but Chile finally apologized (Jan. 25, 1892), 

and paid an indemnity. 

1892, Feb. 29. Bering sea arbitration convention signed with 

Great Britain ; right, of the United States to protect seals 
from pelagic fishing in Bering sea referred to a tribunal, 
which decided (Aug. 15, 1893) against any such right outside 
the three-mile limit. United States paid damages for seizures 
made. 

June-Aug. Strikes and rioting at Cceur d'Alene mines in Idaho 
(employment of non-union miners) ; at Homestead, Pa. 
(wages, non-union laborers, private detectives) ; and in west 
Tennessee mines (convict labor). Martial law declared, mili- 
tia and regulars called out. 

June 10. Republican convention at Minneapolis renominated Har- 
rison and supported protection and bimetallism. Democrats at 
Chicago renominated Cleveland and denounced the McKinley 
tariff, the Force bill, and also upheld bimetallism. A third party 
(people's party) nominated James B. Weaver (July 5), and 
declared for labor unions, free silver, no national banks, and 
national ownership of railroads. Cleveland was elected 
(Nov. 8), by 277 electoral votes to 145 for Harrison and 22 
for Weaver. 

Feb. 14. Treaty of annexation with Hawaii signed at Wash- 
ington. Reform party in Hawaii, aided by the United States 
minister (Stevens) and marines, had deposed the queen {Lili- 



A. d. United States. 589 

uokalani) (Jan. 17). President Cleveland (March 9) "with- 
drew the treaty from the Senate, and after investigation 
proposed to reinstate the queen under certain conditions. She 
refused the conditions (Nov. 13) and the independent repub- 
lican government of Hawaii was recognized (Aug. 7, 1894). 

1893, March 4-1897, March 4. Grover Cleveland presi- 
dent for second time. A. E. Stevenson vice-president ; W. Q. 
Gresbam, later Richard Olney, secretary of state. Democrats 
controlled the legislative and executive departments for 
first time since 1858. 

May-Oct. World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago to com- 
memorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. 

June 27. Disastrous panic, following a heavy export of gold and news 
that India had suspended the free coinage of silver ; fear of a 
silver basis. 

Aug. 7. Extra session of congress to consider financial matters. 
President advocated repeal of silver purchase law to stop 
drain on gold reserve ; alternative, sale of bonds to replenish 
gold reserve continually or payment of obligations in depreciated 
silver. Repeal passed House, Aug. 28 (239-108), and Senate, 
Oct. 30 (43-32). Public opinion sharply divided; agitation 
for free silver. 

1894, Feb., Nov. Sale of government bonds to replenish gold reserve , 

$100,000,000. 

Feb.-June. Great coal strike affecting six states, mining trouble in 
Colorado; disorder, and militia called out. 

March 17. Treaty with China signed, renewing the exclusion of 
Chinese laborers. 

March 24-May 1. March of " Coxey's army;" demonstration of 
unemployed. 

March 30. Veto of a bill to coin the seigniorage of the purchased sil- 
ver bullion. 

June 26-July 19. American Railroad Union strike. Trains 
were blocked and riots ensued, especially at Chicago. Federal 
injunction issued against the strikers to prevent interference 
with interstate commerce and the mails (July 2) ; later, leaders 
were arrested for contempt of the injunction (" government 
by injunction"), and also for conspiracy to block the mails. 
United States troops sent to Chicago (July 3) and other places. 
Strike extended to the Pacific coast. Strike failed. 

Aug. 27. "Wilson-Gorman tariff law enacted without president's 
signature; some reductions in protective schedules, but raw 
material, except wool, still taxed ; tax on sugar; income tax to 
make revenue; reciprocity repealed. 

1895, Jan. 9. Presidential recommendation of national and state 

bank notes defeated in the House (124-130), also bill for low- 
rate gold bonds (Feb. 7) (135-162). Coin bonds ($62,000,000) 
sold to a syndicate to replenish gold reserve ; discussion of 
legality of issue. Free silver bill in the Senate prevented (Feb J 
by filibustering. 



590 Modern History. A. d. 

Feb. Outbreak of rebellion in Cuba ; carried on by guerrilla 
warfare, assisted by a junta in the United States, and attended 
by much devastation and suffering, especially in the reconcentration 
camps established by the Spanish captain-general {Weyler). The in- 
surgents had no real government, and various efforts of congress (1896, 
1897) to accord them the right of belligerents, or to recognize their 
independence, were opposed by the president. Filibustering expeditions 
were guarded against, but many of them reached Cuba. Diplomatic 
Jriction with Spain. Relief sent to the destitute. 
May 20. Income tax declared unconstitutional by the supreme court. 
July-1896, Jan. Venezuela-British G-uiana boundary contro- 
versy. Great Britain refused to submit to arbitration, and 
secretary Olney considered (July 20) the Monroe doctrine involved, 
as the United States was " practically sovereign on this con- 
tinent" and her safety was endangered by Great Britain's attitude 
{Olney doctrine). Dec. 17 Cleveland asked congress to authorize a 
commission to determine the rights of the controversy; "the duty of 
the United States to resist . . . the appropriation by Great Britain 
of any . . . territory which after investigation we have determined 
of right belongs to Venezuela." Commission authorized and ap- 
pointed (Jan. 4, 1896), but Great Britain and Venezuela signed an 
arbitration treaty, Feb. 2, 1897. The award gave most of the dis- 
puted territory to Great Britain (Oct. 3, 1899). 
1896. Rural free delivery of mail began; in 1902 there were 11,650 
routes. 

1896, Jan. 4. Utah (45th state) ; constitution forbids polygamy. 

Feb. 5. Popular issue of bonds ($100,000,000), largely oversub- 
scribed above par. After the election in Nov. the drain of gold 
for hoarding and export ceased. 

June 18. Republican convention at St. Louis nominated William 
McKinley for president and declared for protection and a gold 
standard. The democrats at Chicago nominated William J. 
Bryan (July 10) and declared for free silver. The populists 
supported Bryan. McKinley was elected (Nov. 3), by 
271 electoral votes to 176. 

1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with Great Britain, 

but rejected by the Senate, May 5. 
1897, March 4-1901, Sept. 14. William McKinley 
(b. 1843; f 1901) (Ohio), republican, 24th president ; Garret 
A. Hobart (f Nov. 21, 1899), vice-president ; John Sherman, 
later John Hay, secretary of state. Republicans regained control 
of executive and legislative departments. 

1897, July 24. Dingley tariff act ; intended to increase the revenue 

(which had been below the expenditures since 1893) and also 
increase the protection ; provision for reciprocity treaties. 

1898, Jan 1. Inauguration of Greater New York government; New 

York City, Brooklyn, and vicinity in one municipal govern- 
ment. Area, 359 square miles ; population (1900), 3,437,202. 

1898. Spanish War. 

Rebellion in Cuba (above) made no progress, nor was Spain 



A. d. Spanish War. 591 

able to end it ; contest became one of famine and annihilation. Ameri- 
can sympathy was with the Cubans, American interests deeply in- 
volved, and Spain uniformly refused offers of friendly mediation. 
A new ministry (Sagasta) announced an autonomous government for 
Cuba (Oct. 6, 1897), but it satisfied neither party there. 
Feb. 15. U. S. S. Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, arous- 
ing national resentment (" remember the Maine ! "). McKin- 
ley sent to Congress a 
April 11. war message, declaring that the intolerable conditions 
in Cuba must cease, and asking authority for forcible inter- 
vention. Congress passed 
April 20. a resolution recognizing the independence of the people of 
Cuba (but not of the so-called republic), authorizing inter- 
vention, and disclaiming any intention of annexing 
Cuba. Spain considered this a declaration of war. Later 
both nations made 
KApril 24, 25. formal declarations of war. 
May 1. Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George Dewey 
with 7 cruisers destroyed the Spanish fleet of 10 inferior vessels 
and held Manila at his mercy, but with no troops to occupy it. Rein- 
forcements and an army were sent to him. Admiral Cervera sailed 
for Cuba from. Cape Yerde Islands with a Spanish fleet of 4 armored 
cruisers and 2 destroyers (April 29),and admiral Sampson, searching 
for him, bombarded San Juan (May 12), and finally blockaded him 
at Santiago (June 2). An army of 16,000 men under gen. Shafter 
landed near Santiago (June 22), and in advancing defeated the 
Spaniards at the 

July 1. battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill, and demanded 
the surrender of the city (July 3). Cervera made a dash 
from the harbor, and in the 
July 3. naval battle of Santiago his fleet was utterly destroyed. 
July 17. Santiago surrendered. General Miles landed in Porto 
Rico (July 25), but his advance on San Juan was stopped by 
the signing of the 
Aug. 12. peace protocol. Before this was known the army 

gathered in the Philippines under gen. Merritt 
Aug. 13. captured Manila. 

Dec. 10. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris. Spain 
retired from Cuba, ceded to the United States Porto Rico, 
Guam, and the Philippines, receiving $20,000,000 for the last. 
Pending the organization of its government, Cuba was ruled by the 
United States war department, and a commission was appointed (Jan. 
20, 1899) to study conditions in the Philippines. The administration 
of the army during the war was sharply criticised. 
1898, July 1. Law for a uniform system of bankruptcy. 
July 7. Annexation of Hawaii by joint resolution ; possession 
taken, Aug. 12. Territorial government established, April 
30, 1900. 
Aug. 25. Anglo-American commission met at Quebec to consider 
pending questions with Canada. Reassembled at Washing- 



592 Modem History. A. d. 

ton (Nov. 1), but disagreed on the question of Alaskan bound- 
ary (Feb. 20, 1899). 

1899-1902. Philippine Insurrection. A body of Fili- 
pinos under Emilio Aguinaldo were in revolt against Spain before 
the American war, and during it possessed themselves of all 
of Luzon except the capital. They objected to American 
sovereignty and made an 

1899, Feb. 4. attack on Manila, where the American army was, 
but were beaten off. Severe fighting continued during the 
year, the rebels being driven into the mountains. In 1900 
the insurgents adopted guerrilla warfare, bushwhacking, and 
terrorism, and the American army, averaging over 60,000, was 
distributed in many posts. 

1901, March 23. Aguinaldo was captured by stratagem, and other 

leaders then surrendered, but the insurrection was not finally 
suppressed until April, 1902. 

1902, July 4. Proclamation of amnesty. 

1899, Sept. 6. Open-door policy (p. 597). 

Oct. 20. Modus vivendi on Alaska; provisional boundary through 
the passes beyond Lynn Canal. 

Dec. 2. Disturbances continuing in Samoa under the tridominium 
(p. 587), a treaty was signed at Washington dividing the 
islands. United States received Tutuila and Germany the other 
two islands; England compensated by receiving the Howe 
Islands from Germany. 

1900, Boxer rising (p. 597). 

March 14. Gold standard act ; all paper money to be redeemed 
in gold, provision for maintaining gold reserve, increase in 
national bank notes. 

March 16. President, as commander-in-chief, appointed a second 
Philippine commission of five, William H. Taft, president, 
to continue the establishment of civil government. After Sept. 
1, it exercised legislative authority and established courts, local 
governments, civil service, and schools, and controlled finances. 

April 12. Civil government for Porto Rico ; the act also provided that 
temporarily import duties between the island and the states 
should be 15% of the regular rates, but on July 25, 1901, free 
trade was proclaimed. 

June 1. Population, 76,303,387, not including Porto Rico or Philip- 
pines (12th census). 

June 21. McKinley renominated by the republicans at Philadelphia ; 
the democrats renominated Bryan at Kansas City, and upheld 
free silver and anti-imperialism. McKinley elected by 292 
electoral votes to 155 (Nov. 6). 

Sept. 8. Tornado wrecked Galveston, with great loss of life. 

1901, Feb. 2. Act to reorganize the army ; maximum of 100,000 

men. 
March 2. Piatt amendment on Cuba ; as conditions of withdrawal 
from the island, Cuba to grant naval stations and right of inter- 
vention to protect life, property, or Cuban independence. 



A. d United States. 593 

These conditions were embodied in the Cuban constitution, 
June 12. 

March 2. President authorized (Spooner amendment) to establish 
such temporary civil government for Philippines as he 
saw fit. He continued the commission (p. 592), and made its 
president the civil governor, replacing the military executive 
(July 4). Sept. 1 three Filipinos were added to the commission 
and executive departments created, to which members of the 
commission were assigned. 

March 4. Second administration of McKinley began ; Theodore 
Roosevelt, vice-president. 

May 27. Insular cases decided by the supreme court ; congress 
has authority to make for new territory laws (including a tar- 
iff) different from those applicable to the states (constitution does 
not follow the flag), but until congress acts goods imported 
from the territory cannot be taxed as foreign. 

Sept. 6. President McKinley shot by an anarchist; f Sept. 14. 

1901, Sept. 14-x. Theodore Roosevelt (b. 1858 ) (New 
York) republican, 25th president. 

1901, Nov. 18. Treaty signed with Great Britain abrogating the Clay- 

ton-Bulwer treaty (p. 555) ; isthmian canal to be under the sole 
jurisdiction of the United States. 

1902, Jan. 1. In Cuba, presidential election ; May 20, American 

occupation ended. 

Jan. 24. Danish West Indies purchased, but the Rigsdag refused to 
ratify the cession (Oct. 22). 

March 8. Imports from the Philippines to pay 75% of usual rates. 

May 12-Oct. 15. Anthracite coal miners strike, threatening a coal 
famine in winter. Through the influence of Roosevelt, the 
matter was referred to a commission appointed by him, and 
the men returned to work pending the decision. 

June 17. Act for the reclamation of arid public lands. 

June 28. Isthmian canal act ; president authorized to construct a 
canal at Panama, if he could acquire the right of the French 
company for $40,000,000 and the cession from Colombia of 
the right and necessary territory ; if not, to construct the 
Nicaragua canal. 1 

1902, July 1. Act for civil government in the Philippines. 

Civil government established by the president confirmed (pp. 
592, 593) ; bill of rights except as to right to bear arms and 
trial by jury ; provision for future bicameral legislature 
of commission and an elected house; two resident commis- 
sioners in the United States. 

Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). 

Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with Cuba signed; in force Dec. 27, 1903. 

1903, Jan. 22. Canal treaty signed with Colombia, but Colombian 

1 For the French canal, see p. 578. An American company had acquired 
the Nicaragua right, but the grant had been cancelled. Several commissions 
had reported on the canal project, the last (1900) favoring Panama under the 
conditions named m the act. 



594 Modem History. a. d. 

congress refused to ratify it (Aug. 12). Purchase made from 
the French company. 

Jan. 24. Alaskan boundary question referred to a tribunal of 
six ; award (Oct. 20) sustained the claim of the United 
States, Canada being barred from the ocean inlets. 

Feb. 14. Department of commerce and labor created. 

Feb. 14. General staff authorized for the army. 

May-July. Postal scandal. 

July 4. American Pacific cable opened between San Francisco and 
Manila. 

Nov. 3. Revolt of Panama ; independence declared. United 
States troops were landed to prevent hostilities, and the new 
government was recognized on Nov. 6. 

Nov. 18. Canal treaty signed with Panama ; United States to 
have sovereignty over the canal strip and to safeguard inde- 
pendence of Panama. 

Dec. Agreement of the Philippine commission with the Roman 
Catholic authorities for the purchase of the friars' lands, which 
had been a cause of disturbance under Spanish rule. (See 
p. 599.) 

§ 11. ASIA. 

1883-1903. (See pp. 562, 564.) 

1883. Corea opened to western trade. 1 
1883-1885. France and China (pp. 573-575). 

1883, Aug. 27. Eruption of Krakatua in Java; great loss of life 

from tidal waves. 

1884, Dec. 4. Insurrection in Corea ; Japan and China both sent 

troops, then signed 

1885, April 18. a treaty by which China acknowledged Japan's 

interest in Corea. Attempt by Russia to gain a protectorate 
over Corea prevented. Great Britain occupied Port Hamilton 
(April), but withdrew (Feb. 27, 1887), China guaranteeing 
Corea's territorial integrity. 

1886, July 24. Anglo-Chinese agreement on Burma ; British rule 

recognized, also China's formal suzerainty. 
1887-1889. Floods and famine in China; millions perished. 

1888, Oct. Railway between Eaiping (Chili) and Tientsin opened, 
first permanent line in China? 

1889, Feb. 11. Constitution of Japan proclaimed. Emperor's 

powers carefully guarded, including right of peace and war, 
and power to issue ordinances having force of laws. Bicameral 
diet ; upper house of peers and representatives of merit and 
wealth; lower house elected through limited suffrage; diet has 
a restricted control of finances. Bill of rights, religious free" 
dom. First diet met Nov. 29, 1890. 

1 The first treaty was with the United States, signed May 22, 1882. 

2 The Shanghai line (p. 562) was abandoned. A portion of the Tientsin 
line was opened in 1882. In 1881 there was a telegraph line between Shanghai 
and Tientsin. 



A. D. Chinese-Japanese War. 595 

Feb. Kwangsu, Chinese emperor, assumed the government, em- 
press dowager retiring. 

1890, March 31. Chungking, on upper Yangtze, made a treaty port. 

1891. Outbreak of rioting against missionaries in China, incited by a 
body of literati- ineffectual decree issue against the rioters 
(June 13). 

1893, Oct. 3. French- Siamese treaty of peace signed at Bangkok, after 

short period of hostilities. France obtained all the territory 
east of the Mekong and military control of the west bank. 

1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese treaty on Burma boundary; territory 

east of the Mekong ceded to China on condition of non- 
alienation. 

1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese War. 

Causes : China's claim of suzerainty in Corea and denial of Japan's 
equal interest there; conviction in Japan that a military success was 
necessary to her recognition as a power by the Occident. China sent 
troops to suppress an insurrection in Corea, and Japan, protesting 
that Corea was independent, also sent troops (June 9, 1894). Japan 
proposed reforms to prevent future disturbances (July 3), but Corea, 
backed by China, refused, upon which 

1894, July 23. Japanese troops seized the palace and the king at 

Seoul. Both nations prepared to pour troops into Corea and 

July 25. actual war began with a naval victory for Japan. 

Aug. 1. Both nations declared war (contrasting declarations). 
The Japanese under Nodzu 

Sept. 15. captured Piengyang, the Chinese fleeing across the Yalu 
River. In the 

Sept. 17. naval battle of Yalu River (first battle of modern 
men-of-war), the fleets being of about equal size (12 vessels 
each), the Japanese under Ito dispersed the enemy's fleet 
(Ting) and destroyed five of the ships. The Japanese army 
( Yamagata) 

Oct. 25. forced the Yalu and invaded Manchuria, meeting with little 
resistance. A second army of 20,000 under Oyama landed on 
Liaotung peninsula (Oct. 24), and, after capturing Kingchau 
(Nov. 6) and T alien (Nov. 7), began the 

Nov. 21. attack on Port Arthur, the strongest port in China, 
with modern defences. Several forts were stormed during 
the day, and at night the Chinese garrison of 10,000 abandoned 
the rest. The Japanese army and navy then 

1895, Jan. 30-Feb. 12. besieged and captured Weihaiwei and 

Tinges fleet there. The feature of the siege was the night 
attacks by Japanese torpedo boats (Feb. 5, 8). Meanwhile the first 
army (Yamagata) captured Haicheng (Dec. 13, 1894); Nogi, ad- 
vancing from Port Arthur, occupied Kaiping (Jan. 10, 1895) ; and the 
united forces took Niuchuang (March 4) and its port (March 7). 
The war had shown the rottenness of China's military strength and 
the impotence of her administration. The burden of it fell on Li 
Hungchang (b. 1823; f 1901), who was also sent to make peace. 
By the 



596 Modern History. A. n. 

April 17. treaty of Shimonoseki, China acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of Corea, ceded Formosa, the Pescadores, and Liao- 
tung peninsula (Port Arthur) to Japan, and paid an indemnity of 
$158,000,000. But Russia, France, and Germany protested 
against the cession of the peninsula (" integrity of Chinese 
territory"), and Japan yielded (May 10), receiving an additional 
indemnity of $22,200,000. Japan began to reform Corea, but 
queen Min espoused a reaction, and was murdered (Oct. 8) by 
natives and Japanese partisans (soshi). This destroyed Japan's 
prestige, but there was a gradual extension of the reforms. 

1894, July 16. Japanese treaty of commerce signed with Great 
Britain. Cessation of the right of exterritoriality in 
Japan, freedom of trade and residence. Similar treaties 
were made by Japan with the other maritime powers (1894- 
1897), and all of them went into effect (July 17, Aug. 4, 1899) 
after the new code of civil procedure and commercial law had 
been tested. 

1895, June-Aug. Attack on missionaries in China. 

June 20. China ceded to France territory acquired from England 
(p. 595), and concessions and railway rights in southern 
China (reward for intervention). 

1896, Japan entered upon an elaborate policy of military and naval 
expansion. 

Jan. 1. Convention between France and Great Britain. Spheres of 
influence in Siam and independence of that nation. No exclusive 
privileges to be sought in southern China. 

Feb. 10. A small Russian force landed and marched to Seoul, and 
next day the king ( Yi Hi) fed to the Russian legation, where 
he remained until Feb. 20, 1897. While there, he granted to 
Russians the right to cut timber in the Yalu valley. 

May 1. Shah of Persia (Nasr-ed-din) assassinated, succeeded by 
his son, Muzaffar-ed-din. 

May 14, June 9. Russian-Japanese agreements on Corea signed. 

June 15. Tidal wave in northern Japan, 30,000 perished. 

Sept. 8. Chinese-Russian railway convention signed at Peking. 
Chinese Eastern Railway Company to build the Transsi- 
berian railway across Manchuria. 

1896-1898. Railway concessions granted by China to French, Bel- 
gian, American, British, Russian, and German companies; also 
for exploiting mines. 

1897, Feb. 20. King of Corea returned to his palace, but Russian 

ascendency continued. On Nov. 5 a Russian agent was ap- 
pointed to control the finances, but the British incumbent re- 
fused to resign, England and Japan sent ships to Chemulpo, 
and the Russian agent was dismissed (March 15, 1898) after 
anti-Russian demonstrations. 

March 29. Japan adopted the gold standard ; ratio, 32 1 to 1. 

Nov. 14. Germany seized Kiaochau, because of the murder of 
two German missionaries in Shantung. Prince Henry, brother 
of the emperor, sent to command the German fleet in Chinese 



A. d. Asia. 597 

waters, the emperor speaking of his intention to extend the 
empire ("mailed fist"). 
Dec. 18. A Russian fleet entered Port Arthur to winter. 

1898. A series of progressive edicts issued by the emperor of 
China; but a reaction ensued, the empress dowager ob- 
tained control, and virtually deposed the emperor (Sept. 21). 
The reforms were repealed (Sept. 27), and anti-Christian riots 
ensued. 

March 6. China leased Kiaochau to Germany for 99 years, 
with a sphere of influence 30 miles inland, and railway and 
mining concessions. Kiaochau a treaty port (Sept. 2). 

March 27, May 7. China leased to Russia for 25 years Port 
Arthur, Talien-wan, and the territory and waters north to Port 
Adams, with a neutralized zone beyond, within which conces- 
sions to other powers were forbidden. Port Arthur to be a 
closed naval base, but Talien-wan to have an open port. Rus- 
sia also received the right to connect the leased territory 
with the Transsiberian railway in Manchuria. 

April 10. China leased to France Kwangchau-wan for 99 
years, with railway concessions. Kwangchau a free port 
(1900). 

April 25. Russian- Japanese agreement on Corea ; Japanese para- 
mount interest recognized, Corea temporarily out of Russia's 
sphere. 

June 9. Territory on mainland adjoining Hongkong leased to 
Great Britain, also 

July 1. Weihaiwei for as long as Russia occupied Port Arthur. 

1899. Feb. 28. Italy demanded the lease of Sammun Bay, but China 

refused. 

April 29. Agreement between Russia and Great Britain; the former 
not to seek concessions in the Yangtze valley, and the latter 
not to seek them north of the Great Wall. 

July 17. End of exterritoriality in Japan (p. 596). 

Sept. 1. First Corean railroad opened from Seoul to Chemulpo. 

Sept. 6. Open-door policy. Secretary Hay of the United States 
asked assurance from the Powers that there should be no in- 
terference with free commerce or vested interests within leased 
territory or spheres of influence in China. Favorable responses 
were received (1899-1900) from London, Paris, Berlin, Rome, 
St. Petersburg, and Tokio. 

1900. Boxer Rising. 

Causes : Reaction against drastic reforms; antagonism of foreign 
exploitation of the country and the efforts of the missionaries, whose 
actions sometimes gave an excuse for the false charges made against 
them. A secret society called the Boxers (" patriotic harmonious 
fists ") spread throughout China, especially in the northern provinces, 
committing outrages on missionaries and converts. Countenanced 
by the government and aided by the army, they cut the communica- 
tion between Peking and the coast (June 6), and threatened the 
foreign legations, for whose defense 450 legation guards had been sent 
by the different nations. 



598 Modern History. A. ix 

June 10. An international relief column of 2000 started from the 

coast under admiral Seymour, but it was obliged to retreat. 
June 17. The Taku forts were bombarded and captured by the allied 

ships, which increased the rage of the Boxers, and 
June 20. baron v. Ketteler, the German minister, was slain in the 
street in Peking. The same day the legations were besieged. 
The allied nations (Japan, Russia, Great Britain, United States, 
France) sent a relieving force of 18,000, which, after the 
July 14. reduction of Tientsin, marched to Peking and 
Aug. 14. rescued the legations. The empress dowager and em- 
peror fled to Singan-fu, and the allied forces occupied the 
Sacred City. Li Hungchang and prince Ching were appointed 
envoys to negotiate a peace. The joint powers presented an 
ultimatum (Dec. 22), and 
1901, Sept. 7. a protocol was signed embodying these condi- 
tions : an expiatory mission to Germany and monument to 
Ketteler; punishment of the chief Boxers (this had already been 
done); prohibition of the importation of arms; an indemnity of 
$334,000,000 in gold; the forts between Peking and the sea to be 
razed; anti-foreign societies to be forbidden, and provincial and local 
officials made responsible for good order; reform in the foreign office 
and court ceremonial. 

1900, July. Massacre of Chinese at Blagovestchensk by Russian 

troops, followed by an invasion of Manchuria, which the 
Russians occupied and held on the plea of protecting the 
railway and preserving order. The opposition of the other 
powers especially Japan, prevented China from acquiescing 
in this. 
Oct. 16. Germany and Great Britain signed an agreement upholding 
the territorial integrity of China, the " open door," and non-inter- 
ference in her internal affairs. 

1901, July 6. A mission from the Dalai Lama of Lhasa was received 

by the tzar ; political significance disavowed. Great Britain 
(Sept. 2) protested against any proceedings tending to disturb 
existing conditions in Thibet. 

Oct. 1. f Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan; succeeded by his 
son, Habibullah. 

Nov. 9. Persian- Russian treaty secretly signed, giving Russia in- 
creased control over Persian trade. 

1902, Jan. Transsiberian rail-way opened. 

Jan. 30. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance concluded to main- 
tain the territorial integrity of China and Corea. Assist- 
ance to be given if either signatory power in defending this 
integrity was opposed by two nations. This alliance was 
answered by the 

March 16. declaration of " allied " Russia and France. 

April 8. Russia agreed to restore Manchuria to China; evacu- 
ation to be completed by Oct. 9, 1903. 

Sept. 5. Anglo-Chinese commercial treaty signed; uniform coinage 
in China, abolition of transit dues (likin), improvement in navi- 
gation, protection of investments, new treaty ports, mission- 



A. d. Asia. 599 

aries, trade marks, copyright, tariff, mining, exterritoriality. 
Similar treaties with Japan and United States (Oct. 8, 1903). 
Oct. 7. Siamese-French treaty signed; caused by French encroach- 
ments. Siam ceded additional territory. 

1903. Russian-Japanese Crisis. 

Russia not withdrawing from Manchuria as agreed, and 
showing evidences of settlement and fortification at Yogampo in 
Corea, Japan remonstrated, considering her own independence in- 
volved. As a basis of agreement 

Aug. 12. Japan proposed that the territorial integrity and in- 
dependence of China and Corea and the " open door " should 
be recognized, also the preponderating interest of Russia in Manchuria 
and of Japan in Corea, subject to the first stipulation. Japan to 
have the exclusive right to aid Corea when necessary, and the 
right to connect the Corean and Manchurian railway systems. 
Oct. 3. Russia's reply ignored Manchuria and China, and pro- 
posed restrictions on Japanese rights in Corea. Nego- 
tiations continued until Feb. 6, 1904, when Japan, her last note 
of Jan. 13 not having been answered, severed diplomatic relations and 

1904, Feb. 8. began the war. 

§ 12. LEADING EVENTS, 1904-1908. 

1904, March 14. The United States supreme court pronounced the 
merger of the Northern Pacific R. K. and the Great Northern 
R. It. in the Northern securities co. illegal ; the first result of 
an attempt by the government to check, under the Sherman 
act (p. 588) the development of combinations of capital in 
place of competition. 
April 8. Anglo-French treaty. France recognized the position 
of Great Britain in Egypt, and Great Britain the special 
interests of France in Morocco. France abandoned her exclu- 
sive fishery rights on the French shore in Newfoundland under the 
treaty of Utrecht (1713), receiving an indemnity and territorial con- 
cessions in Senegambia and Nigeria. Great Britain withdrew her 
protests against the French customs regime in Madagascar. De- 
limitation of spheres of influence in Siam. Differences in the New- 
Hebrides to be settled by a special agreement (Convention of Oct. 
20, 1906). 

April 9. Death of Isabella II., former queen of Spain. 
April 24-30. President Loubet visited the king of Italy, ignoring 
the Pope, who protested to the powers. French ambassador 
to the Vatican withdrawn (May 21). 
The Japanese under Kuroki, having occupied Corea, 
May 1. defeated the Russians at the Yalu river. 
May 21-26. Oku won the battles of Kinchau and Nanshan , Dalny 
occupied May 29. Nogi began the siege of Port Arthur. 
Three armies moving northward united under marshal Oyama 
and 
Aug. 25-Sept. 4. defeated the Russians at Liauyang. Kuro- 
patkin withdrew in good order to Mukden. 



600 Modern History. 

1904, July 8. Law forbidding all teaching by religious orders in 

France for ten years (p. 584). 
July 14. Death of ex-president Kruger of the Transvaal in Switzer- 
land ; buried at Pretoria Dec. 16. 
Aug. 12. Birth of an heir to the tzar of Russia (Alexis). 
Aug. 13. On the arrival of American warships the sultan of Tur- 
key granted the claims of the United States as to treatment 
of their citizens and schools. 
Aug. 29. Death of Murad V., former sultan of Turkey (p. 521). 
Sept. 7. Anglo-Thibetan treaty signed at Lhasa, where the 
British mission (p. 573) arrived Aug. 3 after armed resist- 
ance. Thibet to open three trade marts ; not to grant territorial 
concessions to foreign powers, nor to admit their representatives 
or agents. The treaty was ratified by China and, after a protest, 
acknowledged by Russia (Aug. 31, 1907). 
Sept. 16. Birth of an heir to the king of Italy (Umberto). 
Oct. 9-18. Russian advance repulsed at the Shako. 
Oct. 22. The Russian fleet under Rozhestvensky starting for the East 
fired on English trawlers in the North sea, killing two 
men. After detention of the fleet at Vigo, war was averted by 
reference of the matter to an international commission, which 
reported (Feb. 25, 1905) that the firing was in point of fact 
unjustifiable ; no torpedo boats being present. £65,000 paid. 
After a siege lasting from May, 1904, and marked by very se- 
vere fighting 

1905, Jan. 2. Port Arthur was surrendered by Stoessel with 

41,000 men, over 500 guns, and much ammunition and pro- 
visions. 

Jan. 18-24. Cabinet crisis in France on account of the espionage 
(delation) scandal in the army. Rouvier succeeded Combes. 

Jan. 22. In St. Petersburg a large body of strikers marching to the 
Winter palace, led by father Gapon, to present a petition to 
the tzar were fired upon and many killed. (Red Sunday.) 

Feb. 12. The United States senate amended the arbitration treaties 
signed with the European nations and Mexico so as to require 
a special treaty for each case of arbitration. The adminis- 
tration thereupon declined to present the treaties. 

Feb. 20-March 9. The Russians defeated in a great battle at 
Mukden by the five Japanese armies (Kuroki, Oku, Nogi, 
Nodzu, Kawamura) under Oyama. Kuropatkin superseded by 
Linievitch. 

1905, March 4 — 1909. Theodore Roosevelt, president 
of the United States ; C. W. Fairbanks, vice-president. 
At the elections (Nov. 8, 1904) the republicans had 
336 electoral votes, the democrats (A. B. Parker, 
H. G. Davis) 140 ; popular majority, 2,541,635. 

March 31. The German emperor visited the sultan of Morocco at 
Tangier. 

April 4. Violent earthquake in northern India ; 20,000 killed. 



Leading Events, 1904-1908. 600 a 

1905, April 27. The United States purchased the Panama canal 
property of the French company. 

May 27-29. Naval battle of Tsushima straits ; the Russian fleet 
of 32 vessels annihilated by the Japanese under Togo. 

May 28. The sultan of Morocco rejected the French reform pro- 
posals and asked for a conference of the powers. After the 

June 6. resignation of JJelcasse, the French foreign minister, France 
and Germany agreed to the suggestion. 

June. Dissension in the management of the Equitable life assurance 
soc. in New York led to the disclosure of grave irregularities 
in the conduct of the affairs of the great insurance compa- 
nies. The report of the Armstrong investigating committee (Feb. 
21, 1906) resulted in more stringent legislative regulation, 
and similar action was taken in other states, sometimes with 
undue severity. 

jTune 7. The king of Sweden refusing to sign an act establishing 
separate Norwegian consulates, the Norwegian ministry re- 
signed, and no one would accept office, whereupon the Nor- 
wegian storthing voted that the union between Norway and 
Sweden had been dissolved, since the king of Sweden 
had acknowledged himself unable to form a Norwegian min- 
istry and could not discharge his constitutional functions. 

July 1. Death of John Hay, secretary of state of the United 
States ; Elihu Root succeeded him. 

July. Chinese boycott of American goods as a protest against the 
application of the exclusion act to merchants and scholars. 

July 24. The body of John Paul Jones (p. 430), discovered at Paris, 
April 14, was received at Annapolis. 

Aug. 11. Executive committee appointed by parliament in accord- 
ance with the report of the Elgin commission (April 19), to 
apportion the property claimed by the Free church and the 
United Free church of Scotland (p. 571). 

Aug. 12. Anglo-Japanese alliance renewed for ten years, — to 
secure peace in the East and the independence and integrity of 
China, with equal commercial rights for all nations. Special 
interests of Japan in Corea and of Great Britain on the 
Indian frontier recognized. Each nation to assist the other 
in case of war in defence of territorial rights in the East. 

Aug. 21. The earl of Minto viceroy of India ; lord Curzon re- 
signed, Aug. 12, in consequence of the decision of the home 
government in favor of the proposals of lord Kitchener, com- 
mander-in-chief, concerning the military administration in 
India. 
In Russia strikes, riots, and assassinations continued ; muti- 
nies at Odessa, etc. Increasing dissatisfaction over the war ; 
difficulties in securing new loans. On 

Aug. 19. the tzar announced that a representative assembly 

(duma) would be summoned. 
Sept. 5. Treaty of peace between Japan and Russia signed at 
Portsmouth navy yard, after a conference which began Aug. 5. 
Russia acknowledged Japan's paramount interest in Corea, 



600 b Modern History. 

transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, and the rail- 
road to Chang-chung, and ceded the southern half of Sakhalin. 
Manchuria to be evacuated by both powers and restored to 
China. On account of the failure to obtain an indemnity the 
treaty was unpopular in Japan ; riots in Tokio. 

Sept. 24. Treaty of separation signed by Sweden and Norway 
after a referendum in Norway (Aug.) : — 368,208 for sepa- 
ration, 184 against. 
A congress of Russian provincial assemblies (zemstvos) having 
declared (Sept. 25) in favor of a broader basis of represen- 
tation, and a general strike following, 

Oct. 30. the tzar granted an extension of the franchise, the neces- 
sary approval of laws by the duma, and inviolability of person, 
freedom of conscience, speech, and association. Count Witte 
prime minister. 

Oct. 30. Report of the commission appointed by the king of Bel- 
gium to inquire into conditions in the Congo Free State; 
the work of the state commended, but some abuses admitted 
and reforms suggested in the treatment of the natives. 

Nov. 4. The tzar restored the constitution of Finland as it 
existed prior to 1899 (pp. 583, 585). 

Nov. 17. Japan secured (by treaty) control of the foreign relations 
of Corea. Marquis Ito resident-general. Japanese abuses. 

Nov. 27. Prince Charles, grandson of king of Denmark, took the 
oath as 

1905 — X. Hakon VII., king of Norway. (Crowned 
June 22, 1906.) 

Dec. 4. Resignation of Mr. Balfour, English prime minister ; liberal 
ministry formed under sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. 
Mr. Asquith (exchequer); John Morley (lord Morley in 1908) 
(India) ; sir Edward Grey (foreign) ; James Bryce (Ireland ; 
afterward ambassador to the United States); John Burns 
(local government board); A. Birrell (board of education; 
afterwards Ireland). 

Dec. 9. Law for the separation of church and state in France. 
The concordat of 1802 (p. 463) abrogated and control of the 
state over the choice of bishops thereby ended. All payments 
for support of public worship, catholic, protestant, or Jewish, 
ceased, but diminishing pensions were granted. Churches 
and other ecclesiastical buildings remained the property of 
the state, but were to be loaned gratuitously to boards of 
public worship (associations cultuelles) to be formed by adher- 
ents of the several faiths. 

1906, Jan. 29. Death of Christian IX., king of Denmark ; his son 
succeeded as 

1906 — X. Frederick VIII. 

Feb.-July. Insurrection of the natives in Natal. 
Feb. 13. Second (28th imperial) parliament of Edward VII. 
The elections following the dissolution of Jan. 8 returned 376 



Leading Events, 1904-1908. 600 c 

liberals, 130 conservatives, 83 nationalists, 54 labor, 27 liberal 
unionists. 

1906, Feb. 17. Fallieres elected president of France. On 

Mar. 12. a new ministry was formed under Sarrien : — Bourgeois 
(foreign), Clemenceau (interior), Briand (public instruction). 

April 5-12. Violent and destructive eruptions of Vesuvius. 

The conference on Morocco which met at Algeciras in 
Spain, Jan. 16, included the chief European powers and the 
United States. On 

April 7. a convention was signed. A police force for coast towns to 
be established under French and Spanish instructors and a 
Swiss inspector-general. International state bank founded. 
Freedom of trade and settlement for foreigners. Germany 
did not insist on equality of footing with France. 

April 5. Act reorganizing the United States consular service. 

April 18-21. Earthquake and fire at San Francisco ; the 
greater portion of the city destroyed. 

April 21. A new record of farthest north was made by R. E. Peary 
at 87° 6'. 

May 6. General election in France resulting in a large majority 
for the government. 

May. The United States congress adopted plans for a lock canal 
for Panama. Work began at once under the special canal 
commission ; in April, 1907, it was placed in charge of army 
engineers. 

May 10-July 22. First Russian duma ; 524 deputies ; about 200 
constitutional democrats and 125 independents (peasants) 
formed the left. Goremykin prime minister (May 2). The 
insistence of the duma on a general amnesty, responsible 
ministers, and compulsory expropriation of land for the peas- 
ants led to a dissolution. Stolypin prime minister. On 

July 23. a manifesto advocating non-payment of taxes and refusal to 
enter the army, signed at Viborg in Finland by about 200 
members of the duma, who were later tried and condemned 
therefor. Despite government measures for agrarian relief, 
mutinies, strikes, riots (Moscow, Dec. 21), massacres of Jews 
(BialystoJc, June 14), and peasant outrages prevailed until 
forcibly controlled. (Field courts-martial.) Famine. 

May 30. Formal opening of the Simplon tunnel, the longest in the 
world (121 miles). 

May 31. Marriage of Alfonso XIII., king of Spain, and princess 
Victoria of England. Attempt at assassination. 

June 1. Synod of French bishops, the first held since the Revolution. 

June 29. Railway rate act in the United States (Hepburn act). 
Interstate commerce commission given power to fix rates for 
interstate traffic of railroads, pipe lines, and express com- 
panies. Appeals to the courts allowed. 

June 30. Pure food and drugs act, and meat inspection act in the 
United States. 

July 12. The French court of cassation reversed the decision 
of the Rennes tribunal in the Dreyfus case (p. 582). 



GOO d Modern History. 

Dreyfus restored to his rank and promoted ; Picquart also 
promoted. 

1906, July 23-Aug. 27. Third international conference of 
American states at Rio de Janeiro. Drago doctrine against 
forcible collection of debts referred to the second Hague con- 
ference. Sec. Root attended and afterwards visited other 
South American countries. 

Aug. 10. Papal encyclical ; French catholics not permitted to 
form associations cultuelles. Protestants and Jews conformed 
to the law. 

Aug. 13-14. Negro troops at Brownsville, Texas, fired on towns- 
people ; the discharge of a battalion by order of the president 
for " conspiracy of silence" caused much discussion in congress. 

Aug. 13. Capt. Roald Amundsen reached Nome after a three years' 
expedition in search of the magnetic pole, having made the 
Northwest passage for the Jirst time by sea. 

Aug. 16-17. Destructive earthquake in Chile. 

An insurrection (Aug.) in Cuba, resulting from dissatisfaction 
over the reelection of president Palma, led to the landing of 
troops and 

Sept 29. the establishment of a provisional government by the 
United States. (Gov. Magoon.) 

Oct. 7. Meeting of the first national representative assembly 
in Persia. 

Oct. The segregation of Japanese children in the public schools 
in San Francisco led to strained relations between the United 
States and Japan and between the city and federal govern- 
ment. Upon the inclusion in the new immigration law (Feb. 
20, 1907) of restrictions on the immigration of Japanese 
laborers the rule was rescinded (March). 

Oct. 21. Clemenceau ministry in Prance ; Picquart (war). 

Nov. 8-26. President Roosevelt visited the canal zone; at Panama, 
president of the United States for the first time outside its 
jurisdiction. 

Nov. The Chinese government issued a decree ordering the growth 
and importation of opium to be diminished 10^ annually for 
ten years, and restricting opium smoking. During 1906-07, 
reforms in education in China ; creation of a new army. 

Nov. 25. Russian peasants granted ownership of allotments re- 
ceived at the time of emancipation ; unpaid dues remitted. 
The peasants had been previously released from the control 
of the communes and much land had been sold to them. 

Dec. 12. Constitution granted the Transvaal ; bicameral legis- 
lature; manhood suffrage for whites. 

Dec. 20. English education bill abandoned, the commons refus- 
ing to accept the lords' amendments. The intention of the 
bill was to make rate-supported schools undenominational 
while providing moral teaching and opportunity for denomi- 
national instruction where desired. 

Dec. 21. Universal manhood suffrage in Austria. 

Dec. 21. Trades disputes act in England exempts trade union 



Leading Events, 1904-1908. 600 e 

funds from liability for damages committed during a strike, 
thus reversing the Taff Vale decision (p. 572). 

1907. Jan. 8. — 1909. Muhammad Ali Mirza, shah of 
Persia, on the death of his father, Muzaffer ed-din. 

Jan. 25-Feb. 5. Elections for the German Reichstag, which was 
dissolved Dec. 15 after rejecting the grants asked for the war 
in German Southwest Africa. The social democrats lost 39 of 
their 82 seats, though their total vote was not reduced. 

Feb. Treaty between the United States and San Domingo rati- 
fied; the United States to collect customs revenues and pay 
foreign claims on basis of the agreement of Feb. 1905. 
In the United States during the spring and summer many 
states enlarged the powers of railroad commissions, regulated 
the hours of employees, and Jixed passenger rates at 2 to 2^ 
cents per mile. Conflicts with the federal courts. The gen- 
eral government brought numerous prosecutions for rebating. 
Investigation of the Harriman roads. 

March 5-June 16. Second Russian duma ; proving equally radi- 
cal with the first, it was dissolved. 

April. Land fraud scandal in the United States. Since 1902 the 
government had been tracing the fraudulent acquisition of 
public lands ; many suits were brought and some convictions 
obtained. 

April 5. At the elections for the legislative assembly in Finland 19 
women chosen as deputies. 

May-July. Agitation by winegrowers in the south of France secures 
legislation against adulteration and sugaring of wine. 

May 7. Irish council bill introduced in parliament. It placed the ad- 
ministration of Ireland in the hands of an elective body, allow- 
ing a veto to the lord-lieuteuant ; being unsatisfactory to the 
nationalists, it was withdrawn (June 3). 

May 9. Trial of Haywood, sec. of the Western federation of miners, 
who with the president was indicted for the murder of ex-gov. 
Steunenberg of Idaho; acquitted July 28. Startling testi- 
mony as to violence during the Colorado strikes of 1903-04. 

May 10. Birth of a son and heir to the king of Spain. 

June 15-Oct. 18. Second international peace conference at 
the Hague (p. 583). Forty-four states represented {Corea 
not received). Further restrictions were placed on naval and 
land warfare in the interests of non-combatants and neutrals. 
International prize court established (court of appeal); Eng- 
land and the United States reserved assent. The establish- 
ment of a court of arbitral justice was advocated by the United 
States and recommended by the conference, which could not 
agree on a plan for the choice of judges. Forcible collection 
of debts to be allowed only after failure of arbitration. 

July 19. Abdication of the emperor of Corea in favor of his 
son. Japan obtained by treaty a protectorate over Corea 
(July 25). 

July 30- Aug. 5. Several Europeans killed in an outbreak at Casa- 



600 f Modem History. 

blanca in Morocco. The French bombarded the town and 
landed troops. 

1907, Aug. 3. Fine of $29,240,000 imposed by a federal court 
on the Standard oil co. of Indiana for receiving rebate. (Re- 
versed on appeal, July 22, 1908.) 

Aug. 6. The state of Georgia adopted a prohibition act. Similar 
legislation in Alabama (Dec), Mississippi (Feb. 1908), North 
Carolina (May, 1908), constitutional prohibition in Oklahoma. 

Aug. 16. Muley Hand, brother of the sultan of Morocco, pro- 
claimed sultan at Marrdkesh ; civil war; the new sultan, 
though opposed by the French, gradually obtained control 
of the greater part of the country. 

Aug. 28. Parliament passes an act (retro-active) legalizing mar- 
riage with a deceased wife's sister. 

Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian convention. Russia to have commer- 
cial control in the northern half of Persia, Great Britain in 
the southern half. Great Britain agrees not to annex Afghan- 
istan nor to alter the government ; Russia acknowledges 
that country to be outside her sphere of influence. Russia 
recognizes the Anglo-Thibetan treaty. 

Oct. 16. Opening of the first Philippine legislative assembly. 

Oct. 17. Wireless telegraph service opened between Cape Breton 
and Ireland. 

Oct. 22. Panic in New York. The financial disturbances which 
began in March followed by shortage of currency throughout 
the country ; commercial depression. 

Nov. 14. Third Russian duma, elected under a new decree ; 
number of deputies 442, Poles, Caucasians, etc., reduced ; the 
influence of landed proprietors and privileged classes largely 
increased. The duma, however, resolves that the tzar has 
divested himself of his autocratic power. 

Nov. 16. Oklahoma (united with the Indian territory) 46th state 
of the United States. 

Nov. 30. Loss of the successful French war balloon, La patrie. 
Marked development in 1906-08 of dirigible balloons and 
aeroplanes. 

1907, Dec. 8 — x. G-ustav V., king of Sweden, succeeds 
on the death of his father, Oscar II. 

Dec. 16. The United States fleet sailed on a cruise to the Pacific 

coast and around the world. 
Dec. 20. Treaty of peace and seven conventions between the Central 

American states signed at Washington ; Central American 

court of justice established. 

1908, Feb. 1. Carlos /., king of Portugal, and the crown prince 

assassinated ; the second son of Carlos succeeded as 

1908 — X. Manuel II. 

April 5. Resignation of sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (f April 22); 
Mr. Asquith became prime minister. 



Leading Events, 1904.-1908. 600 g 

1908, April 23. North sea treaty between Germany, Great Britain, 
Holland, Sweden, and Denmark. Baltic sea treaty be- 
tween Germany, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. 

May 13. United States. Conference of governors of the states 
at Washington on the conservation of national resources. 

May 25. The United States remitted its claim to $13,000,000 of 
the Chinese boxer indemnity (p. 598). 

June. Civil war in Persia between the shah and the parliament. 

June 18-19. Republican convention in the United States (Chi- 
cago) nominated W. H. Taft (Ohio) for president, and J. S. 
Sherman (New York) for vice-president. 

June 24. Death of Grover Cleveland, ex-president of the United 
States. 

July 10. Democratic convention at Denver nominated W . J. Bryan 
(Nebraska) for president and J. W. Kern (Indiana) for vice- 
president. 

July 25. The Irish universities bill passed in the house of com- 
mons ; two universities without religious tests created in 
Ireland. 

July 30. Old age pensions act in Great Britain ; it is supposed to 
affect 500,000 persons. 

July 24. The sultan of Turkey proclaimed the restoration of 
the constitution of 1876 and ordered the assembling of a 
chamber of deputies elected by the people. A peaceful revo- 
lution by the young Turks. 

Oct. 1. Two cent postal rate between the United States and Great 
Britain. 

Oct. 5. The independence of Bulgaria proclaimed by prince 
Ferdinand. 

Oct. 7. The emperor of Austro-Hungary asserted rights of sover- 
eignty and succession in Bosnia and Herzegovina (compare 
treaty of Berlin, p. 524). The popular assembly in Crete 
proclaimed union with Greece. Negotiations looking toward 
a European conference. 

Nov. 3. United States presidential election; Taft chosen (321 
electoral votes to 162). 

Nov. 15. Death of the emperor of China (Kwangsu) and of the 
empress-dowager announced. 

Nov. 30. Agreement between the United States and Japan. 

1908, Dec. 2 — x. Hsuan-tung, emperor of China (Pi-yi, 
3 years old, son of the regent prince Chung). 

Dec. 17. Opening of the Turkish parliament. 

Dec. 17-19. In Venezuela president Cipriano Castro (1899-1908), 
who had suspended intercourse with nearly all foreign coun- 
tries, deposed (while in Europe) in favor of Juan Vincente 
Gomez. 

Dec. 28. Destructive earthquake in Sicily and Calabria. 



600 h Modern History. 

1909, Jan. 28. President Gomez inaugurated in Cuba; United 
States' provisional government ceases. 

1909, March 4-X- William Howard Taft, 26th 1 president 
of the United States; J. S. Sherman, vice-president. 

April 6. The North Pole reached by R. B. Peary, U. S. N. (An- 
nouncement made Sept. 6.) 
Revolt in Turkey against Young Turks suppressed. Abdul 
Hamid II deposed; his brother 

1909, April 27 — x. Muhammad V. sultan. Massacres of Arme- 
nian Christians. 

1909, July 16 — x. Sultan Ahmad, shah of Persia; his father, 
Muhammad Alt, deposed. 

July 20. In France M. Briand premier in place of M. Clemenceau. 

Aug. 5. In the United States new (Payne-Aldrich) tariff act. 
Few changes downward; hides free. Free trade with Philip- 
pines. "Tariff board." The act unpopular in the middle 
west. "Insurgents." 

Nov. 15. Indian Councils act operative in India ; powers of legis- 
lative councils increased, and a minority of members directly 
elective. Separate electorate for Mohammedans. 

1909, Dec. 17-x. Albert I, king of the Belgians, on the 
death of his uncle, Leopold II. 

In England the House of Lords having rejected Mr. Lloyd- 
George's budget (Lord Lansdowne's motion, Nov. 30) which 
increased taxes on wealth, and introduced new taxes on land 
(general valuation), parliament was dissolved, and the 

1910, Feb. 21. third (29th imperial) parliament of Edward VII 

opened with unionist gains (275 unionists, 273 liberals), but 
a government majority of 124. Resolve of the Commons 
that the Lords' veto should be limited. The budget received 
royal assent April 29. Ou May 6 Edward VII died, and was 
succeeded by his son 

1910-X. George V. 

May 31. Union of South Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, Trans- 
vaal, Orange Free State) inaugurated. 

Aug. 22. Japan annexes Korea. 

Sept. 7. The International Court of Arbitration gives its decision 
in the Newfoundland fisheries case between the United 
States and Great Britain. 

Oct. 3. The new Chinese senate opened. 

Oct. 5. Revolution in Portugal; King Manuel dethroned; a repub- 
lic established. 

Nov. State elections in the United States; great democratic 
gains. 

JNov. 28. British parliament dissolved. The elections return 272 
unionists and 272 liberals ; government majority 126. 

Dec. 10. Population of the United States (exclusive of the Philip- 
pines) announced as 93,402,151. (13th census.) 

1 If Mr. Cleveland's second term were counted, Mr. Taft would be the 27th 
president. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations t a. = abbot ; adm. = admiral ; b. = bishop ; burgr. = burggrave ; c. = count ; 
d. = duke; e. = earl; el. = elector; g. d. = grand duke; H. R. E. = Holy Roman Empire; k. = 
king; landg. = landgrave; margr. = margrave ; pr. = prince; q. = queen; U. S. = United States 
of America; vise. = viscount. 



Aachen, 186, 195. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aahmes, kings of Egypt : I., 4; II., 7. 

Abbasides, rule of the, 183. 

Abdel-Kader captured by the French, 527. 

Abd-er-Rahman : I., founded caliphate of 
Cordova, 183, 209 ; III., 209. 

Abdul-Aziz, deposition of, 521. 

Abdul Hamid, II., 521 ; Kerim, 522. 

Abel, k. of Denmark, 236. 

Aberdeen administration, 543. 

Abo, Peace of, 409. 

Abolitionists, organization of the, 553. 

Aboukir, battle of, 460. 

Abraham, 7. 

Absalon, bishop, 235. 

Abu-Bekr, 192. 

Abul Abbas, overthrows Ommiads, 183. 

Abydos, battles of, 68. 

Abyssinia, Christian kingdom of, 190. 

Abyssinian expedition, 545. 

Academie Franchise founded, 326. 

Acadia, explorations in, 290 ; French claims 
to, 363 ; limits of, 364, n. ; granted to 
St. Etienne, 364 ; ceded to England, 363, 
419 ; dispersion of the French inhabit- 
ants, 421. 

Achaean League, 43, 48 ; under Aratos, 79 ; 
under Philopcemen, 80 ; fall, 80 ; first 
Macedonian war, 118. 

Achaean War, 80, 122. 

Achaemenidae, 25-27. 

Achaia, 39, 48 ; Roman province, 80, 146 ; 
duchy of, 216. 

Achilles, 47. 

Acilius Glabrio, 119, 135. 

A^oka. emp. of Magadha, 23. 

Acre, conquest of, in 3d crusade, 215 ; 
taken by Mamelukes, 217 ; repulse of 
Napoleon, 460. 

Act for the better government of India, 
544 ; of confederation, 483 ; of grace, 
387 ; of mediation, 464 ; for perpetual par- 
liament, 345 ; of settlement, 388 ; of su- 
premacy under Henry VIII., 335, under 
Elizabeth, 338; of uniformity, 338, en- 
forced by James I., 340, under Charles 
II., 379 ; of Vienna, 482; final act, 483, 
487. 

Actium, Corcyraeans victorious at, 65 ; de- 
feat of Antonius, 146. 

Adalbert, archb. of Bremen, 199. 

Adams, John, defends Preston, 425 ; mem- 
ber of Continental Congress, 426, 427 ; 
negotiates treaty with France, 429 ; vice- 
pres., 547, 548 ; pres., 548. 



Adams, John Quincy, sec. of state, 551 ; 
pres., 552. 

Adams, Samuel, 426. 

Addington administration, 536. 

Addison, Joseph, 436. 

" Addled " parliament, 341. 

Adelheid, empress, married Otto I., 195 
regent in Italy, 197. 

Adhemar of Puy, 214. 

Adherbal, 126. 

Adlerkreuz, Gen., 472. 

Adolf of Nassau, elected k. of Germany, 244. 

Adolf Frederic, k. of Sweden, 409. 

Adrianople, battle of, 159, 171 ; peace oi, 
489 ; agreement of, 523. 

JMiles, plebeian, 96 ; curule, 101 ; pay for 
the great games, 120. 

iEgatian Islands, victory of Catulus, 111. 

iEgina, Doric community, 63 ; war with 
Athens, 57; tributary to Athens, 63; as- 
signed to Athenian citizens, 65. 

iEgospotami, battle of, 69. 

Alfred the Great, k. of England, 204. 

Mlia, Capitolina, 12, 153. 

iElle, leader of the South Saxons, 177. 

JEmilianus, 156. 

.ffineas, 87. 

iEneas Sylvius, 253. See Pius II. 

iEolian tribes, 43 ; colonies, 49. 

JEqui, wars with Rome, 97, 98, 100 ; receive 
Roman citizenship, 105. 

^rarii, 92. 

iEscendun, Danes defeated at, 204. 

iEschines, 72. 

JEschylus, 64. 

.^thelflaed, lady of the Mercians, 204. 

^thelred, kings of England, I., 203, 204 ; 
II., the Unready, 205. 

JSthelstan, k. of England, 204. 

JEthelwulf, k. of England, 203. 

Aetius, 172; defeats Attila, 173. 

iEtolian League founded, 79 ; assists Rome, 
116. 

Afghan war, first, 546 ; second, 547. 

Afghans of Ghor, supremacy in India, 211. 

Africa, circumnavigated by Egyptians (?), 
6; by Portuguese, 279, 280; Roman 
province, 121 ; Caesars war, 142 ; Octavi- 
anus administers, 146 ; Vandal king- 
dom, 172 ; fall of the Vandal power, 174. 

Agamemnon, 47- 

Agathocles, k. of Syracuse, 20. 

Age of Augustus, 147 ; of Louis XIV .» 
371 ; of Pericles, 64. 

Agesilaus. k. of Snarta, 70, 71. 



602 



Index, 



Agincourt, battle of, 259, 271. 
Agnes of Meran, 226 ; of Poitou, 199. 
Agrarian laws, 95, 97 ; Licinian, 101 ; re- 
forms of the Gracchi, 124, 125 ; of Dru- 
sus, 128 ; of Sulla, 132 ; of Pompeius, 
137. 
Agricola, in Britain, 37, 152 ; his death, 

152 ; his wall in Britain, 176. 
Agrigentum, 84 ; captured by Carthaginians, 

20 ; by Romans, 110. 
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 146. 
Agrippina, the elder, 148 ; the younger, 148, 

150. 
Aguirre, Lope de, 288. 
Ahmad Shah, emp. of India, 442 ; Durani, 

invades India, 442, 443. 
Ahmednagar, kingdom, 353, 389. 
Ahuramazda, 24, 25. 
Ainos, 33. 

Aistulf , k. of Langobards, 175, 184. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1668, 367; of 

1748, 403, 419, 438 ; congress, 487. See, 

also, Aachen. 
Ajax, 47. 

Akbar the Great, 353, 354. 
Akkad, 13. 

Alabama, admitted to the Union, 652. 
Alabama claims settled, 545, 560. 
Alamanni, on the Rhine, 170; occupy 

Germania superior, 172 ; defeated by 

Chlodwig, 173. 
Alamgir II., emp. of India, 442. 
Alani, 170, 171. 

Alar<;on, explores the Colorado, 287. 
Alaric, k. of West Goths, 171. 
Alaska purchase, 559. 
Ala-ud-dan, sultan of Delhi, 241. 
Alba Longa, 87 ; destruction, 89. 
Albanian league, 525. 
Albemarle, d. of, 379. See, also, Monk. 
Alberoni, card., 397. 
Albert, the Bear, margr. of Brandenburg, 

218, 219. 
Albert I., emp. of H. R. E., of Austria, 

245; II., 253. 
Albert, c. of Holstein, 235. 
Albert, d. of Mecklenburg, 237, 238. 
Albert, of Saxe-Coburg, marries Victoria, 

542; dies, 544. 
Albertine line, in Saxony, 305. 
Albigenses, 227. 
Albinus, Clodius, 155. 
Albion, 36. 

Alboin, k. of Langobards, 175. 
Albuera, battle of, 473. 
Albuquerque, 280, 355. 
Alcantara, order of, 240, 328. 
Alcibiades, 66 ; trial and flight, 68 ; death, 

69. 
Alcolea, battle of, 512. 
Alcuin, 186. 
Alembert, 448. 
Aleppo, sultanate of, 210. 
Alesia, siege of, 139. 
Alessandria built, 221. 
Alexander, prince of Bulgaria, 524. 
Alexander, the Great, k. of Macedonia, 73 ; 

expedition to Persia, 20, 29, 73 ; invades 

India, 23, 75 ; plans to Hellenize the East, 

75 ; his death, 76. * 

Alexander, Popes : III., 221 ; V., 251 ; VI. 



Alexander, tsar of Russia: I., accedes, 
403 ; defeated at Austerlitz, 467 ; in the 
war of 1813, 477 ; in London, 482, 500 ; 
II., 500 ; murder, 525 ; III., 625. 
Alexandria, founded, 74 ; capital of Egypt, 
77 ; Vespasian, 151 ; captured by Per- 
sians, 191 ; captured by Arabs. 182 ; by 
the French, 460 : bombarded by" the Eng- 
lish, 546. B 
Alexandrine library founded, 77. 
Alexandrine war, 142. 
Alexis, tsar of Russia, 374. 
Alexius Comnenus, Greek emp., 214. 
Alfonso III., k. of Aragon, 276. 
Alfonso X., k. of Castile, 225, 240- 
Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, 521. 
Alford, battle of, 348. 
Algarbe, kingdom of, 276. 
Algeria, exp. of Charles V., 304 ; French 

expedition, 489, 527. 
Ali, 182. 
Alien bill, 535. 

Alien and sedition laws in U. S., 549. 
Alkassor, battle of, 332. 
Alkmar, battle of, 461. 
"Alleluia victory," 38. 
Allen, Ethan, 427. 
Allersheim, battle of, 315. 
Allia, battle of the, 100. 
" Alliance of the three kings," 497. 
Allouez, in New France, 364. 
" All the talents' " ministry, 537. 
Alma, battle of the, 500. 
Almagro, Diego de, 286, 287. 
Almanza, battle of, 434. 
Almahzor 209. 
Almeida, 280 ; siege of, 473. 
Almoadan. See Tooran-shah. 
Almohades, conquer Spain, 240. 
Almoravides, conquer Spain, 209, 240. 
Alp Arslan, 210. 

Alsace, formerly Germania superior, 172; 
ceded to France, 316 ; protestants in, 
369 ; ceded to the German empire, 519. 
Alsen , island of, 506. 
Altranstadt, peace of, 395, 
Alva, duke of, in the Netherlands, 330. 
Alvarado, 287. 

Alyattes, k. of Lydia, 21, 26. 
Amadeus I., k. of Spain, 512, 520. 
Amagro, 287. 

Amalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. 
Amalasuntha, 174. 
Ainalrie, k. of Jerusalem, 214. 
Amasis. See Aahmes. 
Amazon, discovery of, 284, 288. 
Amazons, 45. 
Amberg, battle of, 458. 
Ambiorix, 139. 

Amboise, conspiracy of, 321 ; peace of, 321. 
Amboyna, massacre of, 342, 354. 
Ambrosius, b. of Milan, 161. 
Amendments to U. S. Constitution, first 
ten, 547; 11th, 548; 12th, 549; 13th, 
558 ; 14th, 559 ; 15th, 560. 
Amcnemhat, kgs. of Egypt: I., conquers 

Nubia ; II, III., built lake Meri, 4. 
Amenhotep, III., k. of Egypt, war with 
Syrians, etc., 4 ; his statue (Memnon), 5. 
America, alleged discovery, 280 n. ; dis- 
covery by Northmen, 280 ; by Columbus, 
279 ; Darned, 283 ; conquest of Mexico, 



Index. 



G03 



285 ; conquest of Peru, 286 ; Coligny's 
colonies, 288 ; Virginia explored, 2S9 ; 
foundation of Port Koyal by French, 290 ; 
English colonies, 291 ; Dutch and Swed- 
ish settlements, union of the colonies, 
298 ; New France and the Arctic re- 
gion, 299 ; British, Dutch, and Swedish 
colonies, 357 ; King Philip's war, 359 ; 
King William's war, 361 ; Queen Anne's 
war, 363 ; French settlements and dis- 
coTeries, 363 ; King George's war, 419. 
French and Indian war, 420 ; Stamp act, 
423; Continental Congress, war of inde- 
pendence, 426 ; signing the Constitution, 
433. See Canada, United States, Spanish 
colonies. 

American Association, 426. 

Amherst, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 

Amherst, gen., 421. 

Amida, sack of, 188, 190. 

Amiens, peace of, 18 J2, 464, 536 ; battle of, 
518. 

Ammon, 2, 5. 

Amnias, battle of, 129. 

Ampfing, battle of, 247. 

Amphictyonic council, 42 ; first holy war, 
51, 52 ; 2d holy war, 72 ; Philip a mem- 
ber, 72. 

Amphipolis, battle of, 66. 

Amroo, conquers Eg . pt, 182. 

Amulius, k. of Alba Longa, 87. 

Amyrtreus, 29. 

Anabaptists, 304. 

Anagawa, battle of, 355. 

Anastasius, Greek enip., 190. 

Anaxagoras, 64. 

Ancus Marcius, k. of Rome, 89. 

Andelot, Francois d', 321. 

Andernach, 139 ; battle of 193, 195. 

Andre", major, 431. 

Andrew II., k. of Hungary, crusade, 216. 

Andriscus (Pseudo-Philippus), 122. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 361. 

Angelus, dynasty of, 240. 

Anglas, Boissy d", 456. 

Angles, settle in Britain, 172, 176 ; east, 
north, 17S ; middle, 179. 

Anglican Church, 338. 

Anglo-Saxon chronicle, 204. 

Anglo-Saxons. See Angles, Saxons, JuLes, 
England. 

Angora, battle of, 278. 

Angoulcme, c. See Francis I., k. of 
France. 

Angouleme, house of, 317. 

Angromainyu, 24. 

Anjou, house of, England, 231 ; France, 
231 ; Hungary, 277 ; Naples, 225, 203. 

Ankarstrom, 409. 

Anna, of Brittany, 262, 318. 

Anna Ivanovna, of Russia, 410. 

Anna-Dido, 17. 

Annam, French in, 535. 

Anne of Austria, 365. 

Anne Boleyn, 334, 335 ; of Cleves, 334. 

Anne, q. of England, as princess deserts 
James II., 384; acknowledged successor 
of William III., 371 ; her reign, 433 ; 
death, 436. 

Anno, archb. of Cologne, 199. 

Annus normalis, 317. 

Anselm, archb. of Canterbury, 230. 



! Ansgarius, 207, 208. 
; Anson, voyage of, 438. 

Antalcidas, peace of, 70. 

Anthemius, Roman emp., 162. 

Anti-corn law league, 542. 

Anticosti, discovery of, 287. 

Antietam, battle of, 557. 

Antigonus, 76, 77 ; Gonatas, 77. 

Antiochia, 77 ; capture of, 190. 

Antiochus, III., the Great, k. of Syria, 29. 
119. 

Antipater, 76, 79. 

Anti-reformation, 306. 

Antium, 104. 

Anton, k. of Navarre, 321. 

Antoninus, emp. of Rome, rebuilds Agricc- 
la's wall, 38 ; reign, 154. 

Antonius, C-, consul, 136, 137. 

Antonius, M., war with Pompeius, 141 ; as- 
sumes control upon Caesar's death, 144 ; 
follows Cleopatra, 145 ; second triumvi- 
rate, 145 ; governor of the East, 145 ; 
Parthian war, 30, 146 ; defeat and death, 
146. 

Antwerp, capture of, 331. 

Anville, d', in America, 419. 

Apepi, k. of Egypt, 8. 

Aphrodite, 3, 17. 

Apis, sacred bull, 2, 27. 

Apollo, saves Croesus, 26 ; oracle of, 51. 

Appius Claudius, decemvir, 98 ; the censor, 
102, 106 ; caecus, 108 ; caudex, 110. 

Apries. See Hophra. 

Apulia, 83, 141. 

Aquae Sextiae, battle of, 127 ; colony of, 
125. 

Aquillius, 129. 

Aquilonia, battle of, 106. 

Aquitania, 34, 182. 

Arabia, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; invaded 
by Seti I., 5; by Romans, 148 ; Roman 
province, 153 ; invaded by Chosroes, 190. 

Arabian dynasty in Chaldea, 13. 

Arabs, conquest of Africa, 182 ; of Spain, 
183 ; war with the Greek empire, 210 ; 
crusades against, 213 ; conquest of Per- 
sia, 193 ; invasions of India, 211 ; dy- 
nasties in India, 241 ; capture of Con- 
stantinople, 260, 278. See Moors. 

Aragon, united with Catalonia, 240 ; wars 
with the Moors and with Castile, 276 ; 
united with Castile, 328. See Spain. 

Aranda, 415. 

Aratus, 79. 

Arausio, battle of, 127. 

Arbela, battle of, 74. 

Arc, Joan of. See Dare. 

Arcadius, Greek emp., 161. 

Archelaus, 130. 

Archidamus, 65. 

Archons, development, 51 ; elected by all 
citizens, 53 ; reduction of their power, 
55. 

Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of, 481. 

Arcole, battle of, 458. 

Arcot, Nawab of, 443. 

Ardaghan, 523, 524. _ 

Ardoin of Ivrea, 197. 

Areopagus, 53, 62. 

Argal, deputy gov. of S. Virginia, 292 ; al< 
leged submission of Dutch to, 298 ; expe* 
dition to Mt. Desert, 299. 



604 



Index. 



Axgaum, battle of, 541. 
Arginusse, battle of, 69. 
Argonauts, expedition of, 46. 
Argos, chief town in Peloponnesus, 48 ; 
decline of power, 56 ; allied with Athene, 

Argyle, d. of, 346, 437. 

Argyle, e. of, trial, 382, 383. 

Arianism, 159. 

Ariosto, 328. 

Ariovistus, 138, 167. 

Aristagoras, 28. 

Aristion, 130. 

Aristobulus, k. of the Jews, 11. 

Aristodemus, 51. 

Aristogiton, 54. 

Aristomenes, 51. 

Aristophanes, 64. 

Aristotle, 73. 

Ark of the Covenant, 8. 

Arkansas admitted to the Union, 553. 

Aries, kingdom of, 198. 

Arlington, 380. 

Armada, Great, 331, 339. 

Armagnacs, attack Basle, 253 ; massacred, 
259. 

Armed neutrality, 412 ; renewed, 536. 

Armenia, 12, 78 ; invaded by Asshur-natzir 
pal I-, 14 ; subject to Assyria, 14, to Me- 
dia, 25, to Cyrus the Persian, 26 ; attacked 
by the Parthians, 30 ; Roman province, 
153 ; conquered by Sapor, 188 ; reduced 
by M. Aurelius, 193 ; ceded to Russia, 
523. 

Arminius defeats Varus, 149 ; after-history, 
167. 

Armorica, Venetii in, 138; Britons emi- 
grate to, 172. 

Arnim, 312. 

Arnold of Brescia, 221. 

Arnold, Benedict, siege of Quebec, 427 ; 
defeat on Champlain, 428 ; his treason, 
430. 

Arnulf of Carinthia, 193. 

Arpads in Hungary, 277. 

Arques, battle of, 324. 

Arsaces, founder of the Parthian mon- 
archy, 29 ; dynastic name of all the Par- 
thian monarchs (I.-XXX.), 29, 30. 

Arsacidae, 155. 

Arses, emp. of Persia, 29. 

Art in Greece, 64 ; in Italy, 327. 

Artabanus I., k. of Parthia (Arsaces VIII., 
30; III. (Arsaces XXX.), last k. of 
Parthia, defeated by Artaxerxes. 30, 187. 

Artaphernes, 57. 

Artavasdes, k. of Armenia, 146. 

Artaxata, 135 ; captured, 150, 154. 

Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 28 ; II., defeats 
the younger Cyrus, 29; III., 29; Artax- 
erxes I. founds the new Persian empire, 
30,187; II., 189. 

Artemis, 21. 

Artemisium, battle of, 59. 

Artenay, battle of, 518. 

Artevelde, Jacob van, 257. 

Arthur, k. of the Silures, 37 ; traditions 
concerning him in the N. and S., 178; 
cycle of romances, 235. 

Arthur, d. of Brittany, 226 ; death, 233. 

Arthur, Chester A., pres. of the United 
States, 560. 



Articles of confederation, 429 : of Perth- 
341. 

Artois, c. of, 450. 

Arundel, e. of, impeached, 270 ; executed, 
339. 

Aryans, uncertainty concerning, Introd. 
iv. ; in Asia Minor, 21 ; primitive home, 
24 ; Celts, 34. 

Aschaffenburg, battle of, 510. 

Asculum, battle of, 108. 

Ashantee war, 545. 

Ashburton treaty, 554. 

Ashby and White, case of, 434. 

Ashera, Phoenician goddess, 17. 

Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355. 

Ashley, 380. 

Asia, Roman province, 124. 

Aske, Robert, rebellion of, 335 

Aspasia, 64. 

Aspern, battle of, 472. 

Assam, 389, 541. 

Assandun, battle of, 205. 

Assay e, battle of, 541. 

Asshur, 12, 13. 

Asshurbanipal, emp. of Assyria, 6, 15. 

Asshur-ebil-ili, k. of Nineveh, 15. 

Asshur- natzir-pal I., emp. of Assyria, 14. 

Assignats, issued, 450 ; decline two thirds, 
454 ; total amount issued, 457. See 
Mandats. 

Assizes of Clarendon, 232. 

Associations of nobles, 250. 

Assyria, geography, religion, 12 ; civiliza- 
tion, chronology, 13; art, 15; no Assyr- 
ian conquest of Egypt under Shashang 
I., 5 n. 2 ; conquest of Egypt by Esar- 
haddon, 6 ; independent empire, 13 ; 
height of power, 15 ; fall of the empire, 
15, 25 ; attacks Iran, 25 ; northern A. sub- 
ject to Rome, 30, 153. 

Astarte, 16, 17. 

Asturia, kingdom of, 183, 209. 

Astyages, k. of Media, 21, 25, 26. 

Atahuallpa, inca of Peru, 287. 

Athalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. 

Athanasius, 159. 

Athaulf, 171, 172. 

Athena, identified with Ne'ith, 2. 

Athenion, 128. 

Athens, ally of the Ionian cities, 28,40; 
founded, 44 ; old constitution, 51 : re- 
forms of Solon, 52 ; Pisistratus, reforms 
of Clisthenes, 54 ; burned by Xerxes, 
59 ; hegemony of, 61 ; war with Sparta, 
64 ; under Pericles, 64 ; surrender of, 
69 ; thirty tyrants, 69 ; Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes in, 79; captured by Sulla, 
130 ; adorned by Hadrian, 153 ; duchy of, 
216 ; captured by Venetians, 416. Set 
Greece. 

Athos, ML, 56, 58. 

Atlanta evacuated, 558. 

Atlantic cable laid, 487, 544. 

Atreus, 44. 

Attalus, kings of Pergamus, 78; I. joins 
jEtolian league, 116 ; implores aid of 
Rome, 118 ; III. bequeaths Pergamus to 
Rome, 124. 

Attalus, appointed emp. of Rome by Ala* 
ric, 171. 

Attila in Gaul and Italy, 173. 

Attyadee, first Lydian dynasty, 21. 



Index. 



605 



Auckland, lord, gov. gen. in India, 546. 

Auerstadt, battle of, 469. 

Aughrim, battle of, 387. 

Augsburg, founded, 167 ; diet at, 303 ; 
confession of, 303 ; religious peace of, 
306 ; peace of, 317 ; league of, 370. 

Augures, college of, 85. 

Augustine in Britain, 179. 

Augustus, Caesar Octavianus, emp. of Rome, 
bis reign, 147 ; family, 148 ; deatb, 149. 

Augustus II., elector of Saxony, elected k. 
of Poland, 374 ; part in northern war, 
394, 395 ; III., elected k. of Poland, 398 ; 
claimant for the Austrian succession, 
400 ; deatb, 411. 

Aurangzeb, emp. of India, deposes bis 
father, 354 ; his reign, 389. 

Aurelianus, emp. of Rome, 157 ; Persian 
war, and death, 188. 

Aurelius, Marcus, Rom. emp., war with 
Parthia, 30 ; reign, 154. 

Aurunci, 86, 103. 

Austerlitz, battle of, 467. 

Australia, first convicts sent to, 535. 

Austrasia, 181-183, 187. 

Austria, Ostmark reestablished, 196 ; made 
a duchy, 221 ; house of Hapsburg, 244 ; 
Hungarian succession secured to, 278 ; 
circle of, 300 ; anti-reformation in, 309 ; 
peace of Carlowitz, 372 ; war of the Span- 
ish succession, 391 ; peace of Rastadt, 
394 ; peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; alliance 
with Spain, 398; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; 
war of Austrian succession, 400 ; seven 
years' war, 403; reforms of Joseph II., 
406 ; alliance with Prussia, 452 ; first co- 
alition against France, 452 ; peace of 
Campo Formio, 459 ; second coalition, 
460 ; peace of Luneville, 462 ; indemnifi- 
cations, 455 ; third coalition, 467 ; peace 
of Pressburg, 467 ; Francis I., resigns the 
crown of the H. R. E., becomes emperor 
of Austria, 468 ; war with France, 471 ; 
peace of Vienna, 472 ; alliance with Na- 
poleon, 474 ; war of liberation, 477 ; con- 
gress of Vienna, 482 ; influence iu Ger- 
many and Italy, 487 ; Ferdinand I., 491 ; 
revolutionary movements, 491, 493; war 
with Sardinia, 494 ; Hungarian revolt, 494 ; 
Francis Joseph I., 495 ; general constitu- 
tion, 495 ; abolished, 495 ; German em- 
pire, 497 ; war with France and Sardinia, 
loss of Lombardy, 502 ; February consti- 
tution, 504 ; war with Denmark, 505 ; 
with Prussia, 507 ; with Italy, 510 ; with- 
draws from German confederation, 510 ; 
union of crowns of Austria and Hun- 
gary, 511 ; occupies Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, 524 ; alliance with Prussia, 525 ; 
disturbances in Bosnia, 525. 

Austrian succession, war of, 400, 438, 446. 

Austro-Prussian war, 507. 

Austro-Sardinian war, 532. 

Authari, 175. 

Avars, assist Alboin, 175 ; subjugated by 
Charles the Great, 185, 192. 

Avesta, 24. 

Avignon, Popes at, 263 ; annexed to France, 
452. 

Avitus, Roman emp.. 162. 

Ayllon, Lucus Vasquez d', 286. 
^ymer de Valence, 267. 



Ayoubites, dynasty of, 215, 217. 

Ay lib Khan, 547. 

Azermidocht, reign of, 192. 

Azoff, gained by Turkey, 376; conquered 

by Peter the Great, 374 ; finally gained 

by Russia, 410. 
Azores, discovery of, 276, 279. 

Baal, 9, 10, 16, 18. 

Babar, founds Mughal empire, 353. 

Babenberg, house of, feud with house of 
Conrad, 194 ; receives the Eastmark, 196 ; 
becomes extinct, 244. 

Babington, conspiracy of, 339. 

Babylon, capital of Babylonia, 12 ; centre 
of the Chaldean empire, 13 ; founded by 
Ninus (?), 14 ; adorned by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 16 ; captured by Cyrus, 26 ; revolt 
and recapture, 27. 

Babylonia, geography , 12 ; religion, 12 ; civ- 
ilization, chronology, 13 ; dependent on 
Elam, independent (old or Chaldean em- 
pire), 13 ; subordinate to Assyria, 13, 14 ; 
revolt under Nabopolassar, 15, 25 ; new 
empire, the leading Eastern power, 16 ; 
becomes a Persian province, 16, 26 ; re- 
volt against Darius, 27 ; subject to Mith- 
ridates I. of Parthia, 30. 

Babylonish captivity of the Jews, 11 ; of 
the papacy, 263. 

Bacallaos (Newfoundland), 288. 

Bacon, Francis, lord chan., 341; im- 
peachment of, 342. 

Bacon's rebellion, 359. 

Bacon, Roger, 235. 

Bactria, geography, 24 ; religion, 24 ; em- 
pire of, 25 ; subject to Parthia, 30. 

Badajos, geographical congress, 286 ; siege, 

Baden, peace of, 394 ; becomes an electo- 
rate, 464 ; joined allies, 479. 

Bsecula, battle of, 117. 

Baeda, 180. 

Baffin, voyage of, 299. 

Bagdad, caliphate of, 183 ; under the Ab- 
basides, 210 ; destroyed by Mongols, 241. 

Baglerne, 238. 

Bagradas, 141. 

Bahadur Shah, emp. of India, 442, 546. 

Bahamas. 358. 

Bahram (Varahran VI.), 191. 

Bailly, mayor of Paris, 450, 451, 455. 

Bajasid, 523. 

Bajazet I., 278. 

Baji Rao, 443. 

Balaclava, battle of, 500. 

Balaji Baji Kao, 443. 

Balas, emp. of Persia, 189. 

Balbinus, Caslius, 156. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 284. 

Baldur, 164, 166. 

Baldwin, k. of Jerusalem, I., 214, 234 : IL 
to V., 214. 

Baldwin, of Flanders, 216. 

Balfour, defeats Claverhouse, 381. 

Baliol, Edward, k. of Scotland, 264, 268. 

Ball, John, 268, 269. 

Ballard, conspiracy of, 339. 

Baltimore, Lord, 293. 

Bamberg, diet of, 221. 

Baner, Swedish general, 312, 314. 

Bank of England, chartered, 388 ; stopped 



606 



Index. 



specie payment, 535 ; resumed, 539 ; 
charter renewed, 544. 

Bankruptcy bill in England, 545. 

Bannockburn, battle of, 267 

Bar, confederacy of, 411. 

Bar, duchy of, 398. 

Barcelona, county of, 209; united with 
Aragon, 240. 

Bardija, 27. 

Barebone's parliament, 376. 

Barlow, sir G., gov. gen. in India, 541. 

Barnet, battle of, 274. 

Baronets, creation of, 341. 

Barras, 459. 

Barre, colonel, 423. 

Barrier treaties, 371, 393. 

Barry, countess du, 446. 

Bar-sur-Aube, battle of, 480. 

Barthelmy, 459. 

Basentello, battle (?), 197 n. 

Basle, council of, 319 ; peace of, 457. 

Basstin, treaty of, 541. 

Bastidas, de, voyage of, 284. 

Bastile, destruction of, 449. 

Batavian republic, founded, 456; trans- 
formed to kingdom of Holland, 468. 

Batavians, revolt of, 151. 

Bates, trial of, 340. 

Batoum, Russians attack, 523; ceded to 
Russia, 524. 

Batthyanyi, count, 494, 496. 

Batu, 240. 

Baum, colonel, 429. 

Bautzen, battle of, 476. 

Bavaria, Bavarians, duchy established, 185 ; 
growth of power, 194 ; granted to Otto of 
Nordheim, then to Welf, 199 ; Henry the 
Proud dispossessed, 219 ; Henry the Lion 
reinstated, 221 ; given to Otto of Wit- 
telsbach, 222; duke Maximilian, 309 ; 
war of Spanish succession, 390 ; extinc- 
tion of electoral house, war of Bavarian 
succession, 406; to be exchanged for 
Netherlands, 408 ; allied with Napoleon, 
467 ; with Austria, 478 ; allied with Aus- 
tria in Austro-Prussian war, 507 ; joins 
Prussia in the Franco-German war, 514 ; 
vote in Bundestag, 520. 

Baxar, battle of, 444. 

Bayard, chev., 302, 318. 

Bayonne decree, 550. 

Bazaine, marshal, at Metz, 514, 516 ; sur- 
renders Metz, 518 ; trial, 533. 

Beachy Head, battle of, 387. 

Beaconsfield, lord (Disraeli), sketch of life, 
543; chan. of exch.,543; premier, 545; 
raised to peerage, 545. 

Beaufort, cardinal, 271. 

Beaune la Rolande, battle of, 518. 

Beausejour, 421. 

Becket, Thomas, archb. of Canterbury, 
231 ; murdered, 232. 

Bedford, d. of, 260. 

Bedford, ministry of, 438. 

Bedloe, 381. 

Beheim, Martin, 280. 

Bel, 12, 13. 

Belfort, battle of, 519. 
Belgii, 37 ; subjugation of, 138. 
Belgium, Belgians, 34 ; annexed to France, 
453 ; revolution of 1830, 489 ; conflict 
with papacy, 525. 



Belgrade, battle of, 278, 397 ; peace ol 

397,398. 
Belisarius, 174, 190. 
Bellona, 84. 
Belshazzar, 16. 

Bern, Polish general, 495, 496. 
Benedetti, at Ems, 513. 
Benedict, popes, V., 176; IX., 199; XI., 

254 ; XIII., 251 ; deposed, 252. 
Benedek, general, 508, 509. 
Beneventum, battle of, 108 ; (Manfred), 

Bengal, 22 ; Muhammedan sultans in, 353 ; 
British in, 443. 

Bennington, battle of, 429. 

Bentinck, earl of Portland, 386. 

Bentinck, lord William, gov. gen. in India, 
541. 

Berengar II. (of Ivrea), 195. 

Berezina, passage of the, 475. 

Berg, grand duchy of, 468, 478. 

Bergen, 405. 

Bergerac, peace of, 322. 

Berkeley, lord, grant in America, 358. 

Berkeley, sir William, 358. 

Berlin, in Hanseatic league, 249 ; univer- 
sity founded, 471 ; cdnflicts in the streets, 
492 ; peace of, 401 ; truce of, 496 ; con- 
gress of, 524 ; conference of, 525. 

Berlin decree, 537, 550. 

Bermudas, 292. 

Bernadotte, on middle Rhine, 460 ; on up- 
per Danube, 467 ; crown prince of Swe- 
den, 473 ; acts with allies, 476, 477. 

Bernard, a. of Clairvaux, 214. 

Bernard, gov. of Mass., 424. 

Berne, joins Swiss confederacy, 248 ; ob- 
tains the Waadtland, 327; confederate 
council in, 492. 

Bernhard, of Ascania, 222 ; k. of Italy, 
186 ; d. of Saxe- Weimar, 312, 313. 

Bernicia, 178. 

Bernstorff, c, 409. 

Berry, d. of, murdered, 527. 

Berthier, prince of Neuchatel, 468. 

Berthold of Zahringen, receives Oarinthia, 
199 ; aids Lothar, 218. 

Berwick, English, ~£o6 ; capture of, 264, 274 ; 
treaty of, 338 ; pacification of, 345. 

Berwick, marshal, 445. 

Bessarabia, ceded by Russia, 501 ; taken 
back in treaty of San Stefano, 523 ; in 
congress of Berlin, 524. 

Bessus, the satrap, 29, 74. 

Bestushef , 411. 

Bethlen Gabor, pr. of Transylvania, 3 9, 
310. 

Beust, v., 511. 

Beziers, storm of, 227. 

Bhartpur, battle of, 541. 

Biarni, discovers America, 281. 

Bible, translated by Luther, 3l'2 ; English 
translation completed, 341. 

Bibracte, battle of, 138. 

Bidar, kingdom of, 353 ; conquered by Au- 
rangzeb, 389. 

Bijapur, kingdom, 353 ; annexed to Mughai 
empire, 389. 

Rill of Attainder, last used, 388. 

Bill excluding bishops from House of 
Lords, 347. 

Bill of Rights, 386o 



Index. 



607 



Bills, the four, presented by parliament to 
Charles I. , 350. 

Birger Jarl, 237. 

Birkebenerne, 238. 

Biron, 410, 411 ; invested with Curland, 414. 

Birthen, battle of, 195. 

Biscop, Benedict, 180. 

Bismarck, count v., early life, 504; chan. 
of the confederation, 511 ; negotiations 
with Favre, 5i7 ; chan. of the empire, 
520 ; at congress of Berlin, 524 ; at Vien- 
na, 525 ; defeated in Reichstag, 526. 

Eithynia, subj ugated by Alyattes of Lydia, 
21; kings of, 78; war with Mithridates, 
129 ; bequeathed to Rome, 134, 136. 

Bla, Lydian goddess, 21. 

Black Death, in England, 268, 269 ; in 
France, 258. 

Black Hole of Calcutta, 443. 

Black Prince. See Edward, the. 

Blackheath, battle of, 333. 

Bladensburgh, battle of, 551. 

Bladud, 37. 

Blake, 376. 

Blanche, regent, 227. 

Blanket meeting at Manchester, 538. 

Bleking, joined to Sweden, 236 ; ceded to 
Denmark, 238. 

Blenheim, battle of, 392, 434. 

Block, Adrian, 296, 298. 

Bloody Assize, 383. 

Bliicher, surrenders, 469 ; occupies Dres- 
den, 476 ; in the war of liberation, 477- 
484 ; created Prince of Wahlstadt, 477 ; 
at Waterloo, 484. 

Blumena.u, battle of, 509. 

Boadicea, revolt of, 37. 

Bobadilla, 283. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni, 263. 

Bocchus, k. of Mauritania, 127. 

Bocholt, battle of, 185. 

Bockelsohn, Johann, 394. 

Bodenstein, 301. 

Body of Liberties, 298. 

Boeotia, 40 ; conquered by iEolians, 48 ; 
submits to Xerxes, 58 ; allied with Sparta, 
62 ; aristocracies in. 63 ; war with Sparta, 
77, 80. 

Bohemia, occupied by Boii, 167 ; by Mar- 
comanni, 167 ; by Slavs, 168 ; war with 
Henry I., 194; does homage to empire, 
218 ; dukes created kings, 221 ; Ottokar's 
war with Rudolph, 244 ; Luxembourg 
house, 247 ; Charles IV.,emp., 248 ; Hus- 
sites, 252; united with Hungary, 278; 
Ferdinand I. elected king, 306 ; in Thirty 
Years' War, 308, 309 ; in Austro-Prussian 
war, 509 ; Bohemian language in Univer- 
sity of Prague, 526. 

Bohemond of Tarentum, 214. 

B jhmisch-Brod, battle of, 252. 

Boii, in Gaul, 34, 35; in Bohemia, 167. 

Boilleau, 371. 

Boleslav, k. of Poland, 197. 

Bolingbroke, Henry. See Henry IV. of 
England, 270. 

Bolingbroke, vise, St. John created, 435; 
impeached, 437. 

Bolivar, 4S8. 

Bolivia, independent, 488. 

Bombay, 271 ; British in, 443. 

Bonaparte, Jerome, k. of Westphalia, 470. 



Bonaparte, Joseph, 468; k. of Naples, 
470; of Spain, 470: driven from Spain, 
479. 

Bonaparte, Louis, k. of Holland, 468, 470 ; 
abdication, 473. 

Bonaparte, Lucien, 461. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, first appearance, 455 ; 
in command for the convention, 457 ; 
marriage to Josephine, 458; crossed the 
Alps, 458 ; Egyptian exp., 460 ; regent of 
the consulate, 461 ; campaign in Italy, 
462 ; passage of the Gt. St. Bernard, 462 ; 
consul for life, 464 ; hereditary emp. of 
the French, 465. See Napoleon I. 

Bonaparte, Prince Napoleon, marriage, 53L 

Bonaparte, Pierre, 512. 

Bonapartists, 527, 530, 534. 

Bond of association, 339. 

Bonder, family of, 237. 

Boniface, apostle of the Germans, 180, 184. 

Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 216. 

Boniface VII I., pope, 254. 

Bonifa,cius, Roman governor, 184. 

Bonner, b. of London, 336. 

Boon, Daniel, 425. 

Bordeaux, d. of, 527, 529. 

Borgia family, 327. 

Bornhoeved, battle of, 224, 235. 

Borodino, battle of, 475. 

Boroughbridge, battle of, 267. 

Bosnia, occupied by Austrians, 524; dis- 
turbances, 525. 

Bosphorus, bridge of boats over, 28 ; king* 
dom of the, 129. 

Bossuet, 371. 

Boston, settlement of, 296 ; massacre, 425; 
tea-party, 425 : port-bill, 425,440; siege 
and surrender, 427. 

Bosworth Field, battle of, 275. 

Bothwell, 333. 

Bothwell-Brigg, battle of, 381. 

Bouilloa, Gudfray of, 214. 

Bourbaki, 514, 519. 

Bourbon, card, of, 322 

Bourbon, constable of, defection, 302; 
death, 303. 

Bourbon, d. of, 445, 446. 

Bourbon family compact, 439. 

Bourbon, house of, contest with Catherine 
de- Medici, 321 ; descent, 324 ; in Spain, 
414 ; in Naples, 416, 468 ; return to 
France, 481, 526 ; final expulsion, 529. 

Bouvines, battle of, 223, 227, 233. 

Bovianum, capture of, 106. 

Boyne, battle of the, 370, 387. 

Braddock's defeat, 421. 

Bradford, William, 295. 

Bradstreet. 421. 

Braganza, house of, in Portugal, 332, 415. 

Brahma, religion of, 23. 

Brahmans, caste of, 23. 

Brandenburg, conquered by Albert the 
Bear, 218 ; falls to Ludwig the Bavarian, 
247 ; an electorate, 248 ; falls to Charles 
IV. , 249 ; given to Frederic of Nuremberg 
(Hohenzollern), 252 ; this not a sale, 252 
n. ; joins peace of Prague, 314 ; indem- 
nifications in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; 
great elector, 368 ; elector becomes king of 
Prussia. 372 ; East Prussia, secured to, 
377. 

Brandt, 409. 



608 



Index. 



Brandy wine, battle of, 429. 

Brasidas, 66. 

Bra valla, battle of, 207. 

Brazil, discovered, 284 ; independent, 488. 

Breda, compromise, 330 ; declaration of, 
378 ; treaty of, 358, 364, 379. 

Bremen, free city, 222 ; in league of Rhine 
cities, 249; not ceded to Sweden, 316; 
remains free in 1803, 464. 

Bremen, bishopric, ceded to Sweden as a 
duchy, 316 ; Danes capture and sell to 
Hanover, 396. 

Brennus, British prince (?) 37; at Rome, 
100. 

Brentford, affair of, 347. 

Breogan, 39. 

Breslau, battle of, 404 ; peace of, 401 ; fall 
of, 469. 

Bretigny, peace of, 258, 268. 

Bretwalda, 178. 

Brienne, de, 447. 

Bright, John, 542 ; resignation, 546. 

Brissot, Girondist, 451, 452, 454. 

Bristol, captured, 267 ; by Rupert, 347 ; sur- 
rendered, 349. 

Britain, geography, religion, mythical his- 
tory, 36 ; probable history to the year 
411, 37 ; Irish invasion, 39 ; expedition 
of Caesar, 139 ; conquest begun, 150 ; de- 
scription, 163, 164 ; Roman Britain, 176 ; 
Teutonic conquest, 176. See England. 

Britannicus, 150. 

Brithnoth, death of, 205. 

British Museum founded, 439. 

Brittany (Bretagne), independent, 182, 201 ; 
under Henry II. of England, 231 ; con- 
tested succession, 257 ; final union with 
French crown, 320 ; annexed to France, 
333. 

" Broad Bottom Ministry," 438. 

Broglie ministry, 527, 529, 533. 

Bromsebro, peace of, 315, 352. 

Brook, Lord, grant in Conn., 296. 

Brougham, lord chancellor, 539. 

Brown, John, hanged, 556. 

Bruce, claimant for Scottish crown, 264. 

Bruce, Robert, coronation, 269; wins Ban- 
nockburn, 267 ; death, 268. 

Bruhl, c, 403. 

Brunanburh, battle of, 205. 

Brundisium. siege of, 141. 

Brunhilde, 181. 

Brunswick, 222, 316, 490. 

Brunswick, d. of, manifesto, 452 ; com- 
mands Prussians, 469 ; expedition, 472. 

Brunswick-Liineburg. duchy of, 224. 

Brute, 37. 

Brutus, Decimus, 144, 145. 

Brutus, L. Junius, 89 ; consul, 93 ; puts 
his son to death in 509 (accidentally 
omitted from the first paragraph in page 
95). 

Brutus, M. Junius, 133 ; murder of Caesar, 
144 ; death, 145. 

Brythonic Celts, 37. 

Buccaneers, 417. 

Buchanan, James, U. S. sec. of state, 554 ; 
pres., 556. 

Bucharest, peace of, 473. 

Buckingham, d. of: (1) favorite of Richard 
III., 275; (2) d. in the reign of Henry 
VIII., 334 ; (3) Villiers, favorite of James 



I., 341 ; assassination, 343 ; (4) favorite •£ 
Charles II., 380. 

Buddha, 23. 

Buddhism, its origin, 23 ; introduced into 
China, 31 ; into Japan, 33. 

Buena Vista, surrender of, 554. 

Bulgaria, revolt in, 521 ; principality of, 
523, 524. 

Bull of Alexander VI., dividing the world, 
282; ausculta fili, 254; clericis laicos, 
254, 266. 

Bull, golden, of the H. R. E., 248 ; of Hun- 
gary, 277. 

Bull Run, battles of, 557. 

Bunker's Hill, battle of, 427. 

Bunyan, John, 389. 

Bunzelwitz, 405. 

Burford, battle of, 180. 

Burghley, baron, 338. 

Burgoyne, gen., 428 ; surrender of, 429. 

Burgundians, on the Oder, 164 ; around 
Worms, 170, 171; on the Rhone and 
Saone, 172 ; subjugated, 181. 

Burgundy (see Burgundians), part of 
Frankish kingdom, in the second divis- 
ion, 181; in the third, 182; given to 
Lothar in the treaty of Verdun, 187 ; 
after his death, assigned to the west 
Franks, 193 ; divided into transjurane 
under Rudolf, 209 ; and cisjurane under 
Boso, 193, 201 ; these two united into the 
kingdom of Burgundy or Aries, 198", 
which Rudolf III. bequeathed to Henry 
II., 198 ; and which was united with the 
empire, 198 ; the duchy of Burgundy re- 
mained with France, was seized by John 
II., and given to Philip the Bold, 258 ; 
growth of its power, strife with kings of 
France, 259 ; Burgundy and Orleans, 259 ; 
in the Hundred Years' War, 260 ; death of 
Charles the Bold, the duchy united with 
France, 262 ; the other Burgundian lands 
fell to Maximilian of Germany, 253, 301 ; 
the duchy claimed by Charles V., 302; 
these claims renounced by Charles, 305 ; 
new kingdom of Burgundy proposed by- 
Joseph II., 408. 

Burke, Edmund, 441. 

Burkersdorf, battle of, 406. 

Burleigh, baron, sec. of state, 338. 

Burlingame, Anson, 562. 

Burma, 22, 30 ; invasion of, 444 ; 1st Bur- 
mese war, 54l ; 2d, 546 ; annexed to In- 
dia, 546. 

Burnet, b. of Salisbury, 386. 

Burnet, William, gov. of New York, 417; 
of Mass., 418. 

Burnside, gen., 557. 

Burr, Aaron, vice-pres. of U. S., 549; duel 
with Hamilton, 549 ; trial, 550. 

Burs-Nimrud, ruins of, 12 n. 2. 

Bute, lord, 439. 

Butler, Irish gen., 313. 

Button's Bay, discovery of, 299. 

Buzzard's Bay, discovery of, 290, 

" Bye " or " Surprising " treason, 340. 

Bylot, voyage of, 299. 

Byng, admiral, 434. 

Byron, lord, 488. 

Byzantium, captured, 61, 68 ; importance t« 
Athens, 72 ; name changed to Constanti- 
nople, 159 ; capital of eastern empire, 161, 



Index. 



609 



" Cabal " ministry, 380. 

Cabochians overthrown, 259. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, discover North 
America, 283, 333 ; Sebastian, voyage of, 
283 ; alleged voyage, 285 ; voyage to 
South America, 286. 

Cabral, discovers Brazil, 284, 353. 

Cade, Jack, rebellion of, 271. 

Cadiz, expedition of Wimbledon, 342 ; siege 
of, 473 ; capture, 527. See also Gades. 

Cadmus, 18, 45. 

Cadoudal, executed, 465. 

Csedmon, 180. 

Cassar, C. Julius, leader of the democrats, 
136 ; consul, 137 ; triumvir, 137 ; re- 
ceives Gallia Cisalpina and Narbonen- 
sis, 138; conquest of Gaul, visits to 
Britain, 139; war with Pompeius, 140; 
Pharsalus, 141 ; in Egypt, 142 ; veni, 
vidi, vici, 142 ; African war, 142 ; war 
with sons of Pompeius, 143 ; C. impera- 
tor, 143 ; reform of the calendar, 143 ; 
assassination, 144. 

Caesar, G. and L., adopted by Augustus, 148. 

Caffir war, 543. 

Cairo captured by the French, 460. 

Cajetanus. See Vio. 

Calais, captured by Edward III. of Eng- 
land, 257 ; only English possession in 
France, 272; lost, 321, 338. 

Calatrava, order of, 240, 328. 

Calcutta, 22, 390. 

Calendar, reformed by Caesar, 144; by 
Gregory XIII., 327 ;* republican c. in 
France, 455. 

Calhoun, John C., U. S. sec. of war, 551 ; 
vice-pres., 552. 

California, discovered by Cortez, 2^5, 287 ; 
by Drake, 2S9 ; gold discovered in, 555; 
31st State of the Union, 555. 

Caligula, 150. 

Caliphate, early history, 182, 183 ; Haroun- 
al-Rashid, 186 ; division into c. of Bag- 
dad, 183; under Abbasides, 210; de- 
stroyed, 241; and the c- of Cordova, 
founded and broken up, 209. 

Calixtinians, 252. 

Calixtus II., Pope, 201. 

Calmar. union of, 237, 238, 276, 351 

Calonne, 197, 447. 

Calonnes, 449. 

Calpurnius, C, 118. 

Calvin, 304. 

Calvinists, not included in convention of 
Passau, 305 ; nor in peace of Augsburg, 
306 ; included iu peace of Westphalia, 
317. 

Camaret, of Rouen, 284. 

Camargo, Alonzo de, 287. 

Cambray, league of, 300, 318, 326 ; peace of, 
303. 

Cambyses, k. of Persia, defeats Psamethik, 
7 ; attempted conquest of Carthage, 19 ; 
conquest of Egypt, slaughter of Apis(?), 

Camden, battle of, 430. 

Camillus, M. Furius, 100, 103. 

Campania, 81, 83, 104. 

Campbell, lord chan., 544. 

Campeggio, 302. 

Camperdown, battle of, 536. 

Campo Formio, peace of, 458, 459, 463, 46S. 



Canaan, 7, 8, 16. 

Canada. See New France, French in, 299; 
French claims to, 363 ; wars with Iro- 
quois, 364, 365 ; with British colonies, see 
King William ; s war, Queen AnmVs war, 
George's war, old French and Indian 
war ; in the peace of Ryswick, 362, 371, 
388; in the peace of Utrecht, 363, 393, 
435 ; in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 404, 
419, 438 ; Seven Years' War, 420 ; peace of 
Paris, 422, 439 ; ceded to Great Britain 
receives representative gov., 535 ; divided 
into upper and lower C., 542 ; dominion 
of C, 545. 

Canaris, 488. 

Canary Islands, discovery of, 279. 

Candaules, k. of Lydia, 21. 

Candia. See Crete. 

Cannae, battle of, 115. 

Cannibals, 283. 

Canning, e., gov. gen. in India, 546. 

Canning, George, home sec, 537 ; foreign 
sec, 539. 

Canossa, castle of, 200. 

Caurobert, 500, 502, 514. 

Cantabri, 148. 

Canterbury, 38 ; captured by Danes, 203 ; 
archb. of, see Dunstan, Anselm, Becket, 
etc. 

Canton, 31, 561. 

Canusium (tMarcellus defeated at, in 209 
b. c, accidentally omitted on p. 117). 

Canute. See Knut. 

Cape Ann, settlement of Puritans at, 295 ; 
Augustine, discovery of, 284; Cod, dis- 
covered by Northmen (?), 281 ; by Gos- 
nold, 290 ; surveyed, 294 ; Florida, 285 ; 
Good Hope, rounded, 280 ; seized by 
England, 535, see Caffii war, Zulu war ; 
Mendocino, discovered, 288 ; Peregrine, 
300 ; Vela, 283 ; Verde, discovery of, 
276. 

Capet, Hugo, 272. 

Capetian dynasty, 202, 206, 257. 

Capitolinus, M. Manlius, 100. 

Capitularii, 186. 

Capo d'Istria, 489. 

Cappadocia, conquered by Cyrus, 26 ; occu- 
pied by Tigranes, 134 ; subject to Rome, 
156 ; Roman prov., 149. 

Capua, battle of, 105 ; secession of, 115 ; 
surrender, 116. 

Caracalla, Roman emp., Parthian exp.,30} 
reign, 155. 

Caractacus, 37. 

Caraffa. See Paul IV. 

Carbury Hill, battle of, 338. 

Carchemish, battle of, 6, 11, 16. 

Carew, sir Thomas, 336. 

Caria, 20 ; subdued by Alyattes, 21 ; by 
Harpagus, 26. 

Caribs, 282. 

Carinthia, made a duchy, 196 ; surrendered 
by Bohemia, 244. 

Carinus, 158. 

Carisbrooke castle, 350. 

Carlos, don, son of Philip II., revolt and 
arrest, 3o0 ; leader of the absolutists in 
Spain, 490 ; Carlists, 520, 521. 

Carlowitz, peace of, 372, 374, 375, 416. 

Carlsbad, congress of ministers at, 487. 

Carlstadt. See Bodenstein. 



610 



Index. 



Carnatic, 443. 

Camot, 454, 457, 459. 

Carolana, 288 ; granted to Heath, 293 ; 
claimed by Coxe, 365. 

Carolina, Carolana regranted under this 
name, 293 ; granted to Clarendon, 358 ; 
fundamental constitution adopted, 358 ; 
invaded by French and Spanish, 363 ; 
Indian war, 417 ; proprietary gov. over- 
thrown, 417 ; divided into North and 
South C. (q. v.), 417 ; boundary rectified, 
425. 

Carolina, fort, 288. 

Caroline, q. of England, 539 

Carolingians, Austrasian mayors of the pal- 
ace, 182; kings of the Franks, 184; in 
Italy and Germany, 193 ; in France, 201. 

Carpi, battle of, 392. 

Carrhae, battle of, 140. 

Carteret, Sir George, 358. 

Carthage, founded, 18 ; Meltzer's view con- 
cerning, 18, n. 1; constitution, 19 ; oppo- 
sition to Grecian colonization, 19 ; threat- 
ened by Cambyses, 19, 27 ; wars with 
Sicilian Greeks, 20 ; defeat at Himera, 
20 ; treaty of commerce with Rome, 103 ; 
allied with Rome, 108 ; war with Rome. 
See Punic wars ; destroyed, 12 ; occu- 
pied by Vandals, 172. See Phoenicia. 

Carthage, New, taken by Scipio, 117. 

Carthagena, 285 ; sack of, 290 ; sacked by 
Drake, 339 ; attacked by Vernon, 419, 438. 

Cartier, Jacques, voyages to America, 287. 

Carus, Roman emp., 15/ 

Carver, John, gov. of Plymouth, 294. 

Casco, destruction of, 361 

Casimir the Great, k. of Poland, 277. 

Casimir, John, 373, 374. 

Cassander, 76. 

Cassiterides, visited by Phoenicians, 17 n. 

Cassius, 144, 145. 

Cassius, Sp. 97. 

Cassivelaunus, 37, 139. 

Castelfidardo, battle of, 503. 

Castes, in Egypt, 3 ; in India, 23. 

Castile, county, afterwards kingdom of , 209 ; 
final union with Leon, 240 ; kings of, 276 ; 
united with Aragon, 328 ; supports Philip 
of Anjou, 392. 

Castillon, battle of, 272. 

Castlereagh, at Vienna, 482; foreign sec, 
537 ; suicide, 539. 

Catalaunian fields, battle of the, 173. 

Catalonia, 240; royal house extinct, 276; 
invaded 392. 

Cateau-Cambresis, treaty of, 321, 327, 338. 

Catesby, Robert, 340. 

Cathari, 227. 

Cathay, 30. 

Catherine de' Medici, 321, 324. 

Catherine, emp. of Russia, I., reign, 410 ; 
II., in seven years' war, 406 ; reign, 411 ; 
war with the Turks, 412, 413. 

Catholic league, 398. 

Catholic relief act, 539. 

Catiline, conspiracy of, 136. 

Catinat, 370, 392. 

Cato, M. Porcius, the elder, in Spain, 118 ; 
accuses Scipio, 120 ; " Carthaginem esse 
delendam," 121 ; the younger, absent from 
Rome, 138; returned, 139; at Dyrra- 
chium, 141 ; suicide, 142. 



Cato street conspiracy, 538. 

Cattle plague, 544. 

Catullus, C. Valerius, 148. 

Caudine Pass, 105. 

Caulaincourt, 477, 480. 

Causa fidei, reformationis, unionia, 251,252, 

" Cavalier " parliament, 378, 381. 

Cavendish, F., sec for Ireland, 546. 

Cavour, c. 503, 531. 

Cawnpore, massacre at, 546. 

Caxton, William, 275. 

Ceawlin, k. of Wessex, 178. 

Cecil. See Burghley. 

Cecrops, 44. 

Celibacy introduced, 200. 

Celtiberians, 35. 

Celts, migrations of, 35 ; Goidelic and Bry- 
thonic, 35 ; Celts of Gaul. See Gauls. 
Celts of British isles, 36. See also Brit- 
ain. Celts in Italy, 35, 86; join Hanni- 
bal, 114 ; annihilated as a nation, 138. 

Censor, creation of the office, 99 ; one cen- 
sor plebeian, 102 ; power limited, 132 ; re- 
stored, 133 ; given to Caesar, 143. 

Censorship of the press abolished in Eng- 
land, 388. 

Census of American colonies, 423 ; of In- 
dia, 1881, 547 ; of Ireland, 543 ; of Japan, 
445 ; of New France, 365 ; Roman c, 92 ; 
of U. S. 1st, 547 ; 2d, 549 ; 4th, 552 ; 5th, 
553; 6th, 554; 7th, 555; 8th, 556; 9th 
and 10th, 560 ; of Virginia, 292, 293. 

Ceorl, 177. 

Cerausius, emp. of Britain, 38. 

Cerdic, 178. 

Cerealis, 152. 

Ceres, 84. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 554. 

Ceylon, Buddhism in, 23; seized by Eng- 
lish, 535. 

Chabrias, 70, 71. 

Chaeronea, battle of, 73, 131. 

Chaireddin Barbarossa, 304. 

Chait Sinh, raja of Benares, 444. 

Chalcedon, battle of, 134 ; fall of, 191. 

Chaldea, 13. 

Chaleur Bav, 294. 

Chalons, battle of, 173 ; 516. 

Chambers of Reunion, 368. 

Chambord, c. of. See Bordeaux, d. of, 529. 

Champigny, storm of, 518. 

Champlain, Samuel, voyage, 290 ; discov- 
ers the lakes, 299 ; death, 300. 

Chancellorsville, battle at, 558. 

Chandra-gupta, 23. 

Chanzy, defeat of, 519. 

Chapultepec captured, 554. 

Charge of the Light Brigade, 500. 

Charibert I., k. of Franks, 181, 

Charlemagne. See Charles I., emp. 

Charles of Anjou, 225, 226. 

Charles, arclid. of Austria. 392, 458, 460. 
467,471,472. 

Charles of Bavaria, 509. 

Charles the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 260. 

Charles I., k. of England, government in 
Virginia, 293 ; in Spain, 342 ; marriage, 
342 ; reign, 342-351 ; surrenders to Scots. 
349; escapes, 350; execution, 351. 

Charles II., defeat and flight, 375; pro- 
claimed k.,378 ; marriage, 379 ; treaty ol 
Dover, 380; death, 383. 



Index. 



611 



Obarles III., k. of France, 202 ; IV., the 
Fair, 265; V., the Wise, 258 ; VI., 259 
VII., 259, 260; VIII., 262; IX., 321 
"X.", cardinal of Bourbon, 324 ; X.,488 
abdicates, 489, 527. 

Charles I., emp. of the H. R. E., the Great 
(Charlemagne), 184, 193 ; II., the Bald, 
186, 187, 201; III., the Fat, 193, 201; 
IV., 248; V., ancestor of the Span- 
ish line of Hapsburg, 301 ; reign, 302 ; 
Charles and Luther, 302 ; wars with 
Francis I., 302, 303, 304 ; with Henry II., 
306 ; Schmalkaldic war, 305 ; abdica- 
tion, 306. See Charles I., of Spain ; VI., 
claims to Spanish succession, 390 ; reign, 
397 ; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; death, 
400 ; VII., election, 401 ; exile, death, 402. 

Charles, card, of Lorraine, 319. 

Charles, d. of Lorraine, last Carolingian 
heir to French crown, 202. 

Charles of Lorraine, Austrian gen., 372, 404. 

Charles, k. of Navarre, the Bad, 258. 

Charles, k. of Spain, 1., possessions in the 
Netherlands, 329 ; reign, 330. See, also, 
Charles, emp. of H.R. E., V. ; II., 390 ; 
III., 414 ; IV., abdicates, 470. 

Charles, k. of Sweden, IX., 352 ; X., 373 ; 
XI., 373; XII., 394; wars with Peter 
the Great, 394; Varna, 395; in Turkey, 
death, 396 ; XIII., 472. 

Charles Albert, e. of Bavaria, claimant for 
Austrian inheritance, 400. 

Charles Albert, k. of Sardinia, 494. 

Charles Edward, young pretender, 438. 

Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, 
k. of Sweden, 352. 

Charles Martel, 183, 184. 

Charles Theodore, 406 ; elector palatine, 
claimant for the Spanish succession, 406. 

Charleston, Carolina, foundation of, 358, 
359; capture by Clinton, 430; evacua- 
tion, 431 ; in the civil war, 537 ; evacua- 
tion, 559. 

Charter Oak, 361. 

Chartists, 542. 

Chase, Salmon P., U. S. sec. of thetreas.,556. 

Chastehoy, peace of, 322. 

Chateaubriand, 527. 

Chatham, e. of, as Wm. Pitt in Broad Bot- 
tom ministry, 438 ; sec. of state, 439 ; 
sketch of life, 439 ; prime minister, 424. 

Chatillon, congress at, 480. 

Chattanooga, battle of, 558. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 270. 

Chaumont, alliance of, 480. 

Chedorlaomer, k. of Babylon, 13. 

Cheops. See Khufu. 

Chephren. See Khafra. 

Cherasco, treaty of, 311, 325. 

Cherry Valley, massacre of, 430. 

Cherusci, 168. 

Chester, battle of, 179. 

Clievy Chase, battle of, 269. 

Che-wang-te, emp. of China, built the 
Chinese wall ; destroyed books, 32. 

Chiari, battle of, 392. 

Chiersi, dietof, 201. 

Childebert I., k. of the Franks, 181. 

Childeric III., k. of the Franks, 184. 

Chili, invaded by Almagro, 287 ; indepen- 
dent, 488. 



Chilperic I., k. of the Franks, 181. 

China, geography, 30 ; religion, 31 ; chro- 
nology, 31 ; origin of Chinese, 31 ; early 
dynasties, 3 f i ; brilliant epoch, 32 ; the 
three kingdoms, 32 ; Buddhism in, 23 ; 
brilliant period, 211 ; conquered by Mon- 
gols, 242 ; in the 15th cent., 278 ; Tatar 
conquest, 354 ; war with Russia, 390 ; 
French and English exp. against, 501 ; 
opium war, 542, 561 ; treaties with Franco 
and U. S., 561 ; war with Great Britain 
and France, 561 ; famine, 562 ; treaty 
with Russia, 562. 

Chinese emigration to U. S. suspended, 
560. 

Chios, battle of, 412 ; 416 ; revolt, 488. 

Chippewa, battle of, 551. 

Chlodwig, k. of the Franks, 173. 

Chlopicki, 49 J. 

Chlotar L, k. of Franks, 181. 

Choiseul, d. de., 446. 

Chosroes, k. of Parthia, war with Trajan, 
30 ; k. of Armenia, 153 ; deposed, 189. 

Chosroes, k. of Persia, I., (Anushirwan), 
reign, 190, 191 ; II., Eberwiz, 191. 

Chotusitz, battle of, 401. 

Chow dynasty in China. 32 ; later Chow, 
211. 

Chowaresmians, empire of the, 240. 

Chremonides, 79. 

Christ, birth of, 11, 149. 

Christian of Anhalt, 309; of Brunswick, 
defeated by Tilly, 310. 

Christian, k. of Denmark, I., of Olden- 
burg, 351 ; II., union of Calmar broken, 
351,352; III., 352; IV., head of lower 
Saxon circle, in thirty years' war, 310 ; 
war with Sweden, 314, 352; VI., VII., 
409; VIII., annexes Schleswig-Holstein, 
409 ; IX., accepts the constitution, 505, 
506. 

Christiania founded, 209. 

Christianity, first persecution, 151 ; under 
Deems, 156 ; under Diocletian, 158 ; made 
state religion by Constantine, 159 ; aban- 
doned by Julian, 160; reinstated by Jovi- 
anus, 160 ; adoption of pagan customs, 
165 : conversion of Goths, 170 ; of the 
Franks, 173 ; of Langobards, 175 ; begin- 
ning .of the papacy, 175; conversion of 
Britons, 38 ; of the Anglo-Saxons, 179 ; of 
the Germans, 184; Christians persecuted 
in Persia, 189 ; tolerated in Persia, 190 ; 
conversion of the North, 207, 208, 209 ; 
tolerated in China, 211 ; conversion of Po- 
land, Prussia, Hungary, 277 ; preached in 
China, 355 ; introduced in Japan, but re- 
jected, 356 ; Jesuits in Canada, 364 ; per- 
secution in China, 444; Christians in 
Turkey, 522, 524 ; toleration secured in 
China, 562. 

Christina of Sweden, 352. 

Christopher II., k. of Denmark, 236. 

Chrysanthemums, war of the, 243. 

Chm-ch, high and low, 433. 

Churchill. See Marlborough. 

Cibola, seven cities of, 287. 

Cicero, birthplace of, 82; sketch of life, 
136; speeches against Catiline, 137', 
banished, 138 ; recalled, 139 ; proconsul, 
140 ; murdered, 145. 



612 



Index. 



Cid, 209. 

Cilicia, Semitic, 21 ; under Persia, 26, 27, 
134 ; Roman province, 136. 

Cimbri, invade Italy, 127, 128, 167. 

Cimon, 57, 61 ; rivalry with Themistocles, 
62 ; recalled to Athens, death, 63. 

Cimon, peace of, 63. 

Cincinnati, society of the, 432. 

Cincinnatus, L. Quinctius, 98. 

Cineas, 108. 

Cinna, 130, 131. 

Cinq-Mars, marquis of, 326. 

Cinque Ports, 264. 

Circles of the II. R. E., 300. 

Cisalpine republic, founded, 459 ; included 
in Italian republic, 454. 

Ciudad Rodrigo, captured, 473. 

Civil marriage compulsory, 521. 

Civil rights bill, 559. 

Civil service act, 560. 

Civil war, in England (Roses), 272 ; great 
rebellion, 347, 350 ; in France, 321, 322 ; 
in Portugal, 488 ; in Rome, 130, 140 ; in 
Spain, 490, 520 ; in Switzerland, 492 ; in 
United States, Shays's rebellion, 433 ; 
whiskey, 548 ; great rebellion, 557. 

Civilis, CI., 168. 

Clarence, d. of, 274. 

Clarendon, e. of, first interview with the 
king, 346 ; receives grant of South Caro- 
lina, 358 ; chancellor, 378 ; fall, 379. 

Clark, John, settles Rhode Island, 297. 

Claudia, 148, 319. 

Claudius, Roman emp., conquest of Brit- 
ain, 37 ; reign, 157. 

Claudius Pulcher, 111. 

Claverhouse, defeat, 381 ; victory and 
death, 386. 

Clay, Henry, U. S. sec. of state, 552. 

Clay's compromises, 555. 

Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 555. 

Clemens Maximus, 161. 

Clement II., pope, 199 ; III., 200 ; V., 254 ; 
goes to Avignon, 263 ; XIV., 416. 

Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 55 ; III., 79. 

Cleon, 65, 66. 

Cleopatra placed over Egypt by Caesar, 
142 ; meets Antonius, 145 ; fails to charm 
Octavian, death, 147. 

Clermont, council of, 214. 

£leve-Jiilich, contested succession begun, 
308 ; ended, 372. [Geneal. table, 307.] 

Clientes, 90. 

Cliff temples in India, 23. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 429, 430. 

Clisthenes, reforms of, 54. 

Clitus, murder of, 75 

Clive , lord, 442 ; sketch of life, 443 ; in 
India, 443, 444. 

Clodius, P., 135 ; tribune exiles Cicero, 
128 ; ultra democrat, 139 ; death, 140. 

Cloten, 37. 

Clovis. See Chlodwig. 

Cnut. See Knut. 

Coalition ministry, 441. 

Cobbet, William, 538. 

Cobden, Richard, 542. 

Cochin China, 30 ; annexed to China, 278 ; 
invasion of, 444. 

Code Napoleon, 462. 

Codrus, k. of Athens, 48. 

Coercion act, 546. 



Coke, Sir Edward, 341, 342. 

Colbert, 366. 

Colchester, taken by Fairfax, 351. 

Coleman, execution, 381. 

Coligny, adm. de, attempts to found a 
Huguenot colony in America, 288 ; mur- 
dered, 321. 

Collatinus, 89, 93. 

College, execution of, 383. 

Colleges of sacred lore, 86 ; founded, 170. 

Colmar, 186. 

Cologne, diet of, 300 ; archbishop of, elec- 
tor, 248. 

Colombia, 488. 

Colonies, Greek, 48, 49 ; Roman and Latin, 
109; in America: Spanish, 282, etc.; 
English, 291; Dutch, Swedish, 2t)8 : 
French, 299, 363. 

Colosseum, 82, 152. 

Columbey-Nouilly, battle of, 516. 

Columbus, Bartholomew ,283 ; Christopher, 
voyages to America, 282, 283, 284 ; state 
of Japan at the time of his voyage, 278 ; 
Diego, 284. 

Comitia, centuriata, origin. 92 ; growth of 
power, 94, 102 ; chooses censors, 99 ; de- 
cline, 107 ; democratic reform of, 112 ; 
reformed by Sulla, 130 ; further conser- 
vative changes, 132; powers transferred 
to the senate, 149 : curiata, original con- 
stitution, 91, 92; changes in the consti- 
tution, 94 and n. ; constitution in the 4th 
cent. b. c, 102 : tributa, established, 96 ; 
summons Coriolanus, 97; made equal 
with centuriata, 98 ; constitution in 4th 
cent. B. C, 102 ; resolves made univer- 
sally binding, 107. 

Commercial panic in England, 539 ; in U. 
S., 556, 560. 

Committee of public safety, in England, 
347; in France, 453, 455. 

Commodus, Roman emp., 154. 

Common law, 266. 

Commune of Paris 451, 454, 455; upris- 
ing, 532. 

Comnenes, dynastv, 240 ; house. 240. 

Compton, b. of London, 383, 384. 

Compurgation, abolition of, 232. 

Concilium Germanicum, 184. 

Concini (Marshal d'Ancre), 325. 

Concord, battle of, 426. 

Concordat in France, 319, 463. 

Cond6, 315, 366, 368, 450. 

Condillac, 448. 

Confederate States of America, 556 ; recog- 
nized by Great Britain, 555. 

Confederation of the Rhine, establishment, 
468 ; dissolution, 479. 

Confession of faith, 338. 

Confirmatio chartarum, 266. 

Confians, treaty of, 260. 

Confucius, 32. 

Congress, Continental, 426,427 ; of United 
States, 547. 

Connecticut, colony of, 296 ; charter, 358 ; 
united with New Haven, 358 ; govern- 
ment, 361, 362; slavery partially abol- 
ished, 432. 

Conrad, emp. of the H. R. E., I. (of Fran- 
conia), 194 ; II. (the Salian), 198 ; ILL, 
crusade, 216; reign, 219 ; IV., 225. 

Conrad the Red, of Lotharingia, 196. 



Index. 



613 



Conradln, 225, 226. 

Conseil du Roi, 446. 

Consistorium principis, 159. 

Constance, council of, 251 ; peace of, 222. 

Constance, of Sicily, married Henry VI., 
222. 

Constans, Roman emp., 160. 

Constant, B., 527. 

Constantine, Roman emp., I. (the Great), 
159: II., 160. 

Constantinople, fall of, 260, 278 ; palace, 
revolution in, 521 ; conference of, 522. 
See Byzantium. 

Constantius, Roman emp., 158, 160; Per- 
sian war, 188. 

Constantius Chlorus, 158. 

Constituent assembly in France, 447, 449. 

Constitutio Antoniana, 155. 

Constitution of Austria, of 1849, 495 ; Feb- 
ruary c. , 504 ; c. of 1866, 511. 

Constitution, French, first, accepted by 
Louis XIV., 450 ; second (Republican), 
never executed, 454 ; third (of 1795), 
457 ; fourth, 461 ; fifth, 464 ; of the 
First Empire, 465 ; c. of Louis XVIII., 
565 ; c. of Louis Philippe, 529 ; c. of 1848, 
531 ; c. of Louis Napoleon, 531 ; third re- 
public, 532 ; c. of 1875, 533. 

Constitution of Germany. See Bull, Gold- 
en, and diet of Regensburg. End of the 
H. R. E., 464; German confederation, 
483 ; attempt to frame a new c, 493 ; 
new c. completed, 497 ; return to the 
confederation, 498 ; confederation dis- 
solved, 459 ; North German confedera- 
tion, 511 ; c. of the German empire, 520. 

Constitution of Hungary. See Bull, gold- 
en. Under Joseph II., 408 ; in 1848, 494 ; 
abrogated, 495; in 1861, 504; restored, 
511. 

Constitution of Naples, 493. 

Constitution of Poland, old, 374 ; c. of 1791, 
413; abrogated, 490. 

Constitution of Prussia, 497. 

Constitution of 1812 in Spain formed, 473 ; 
abrogated, 483 ; restored, 487 ; abrogated, 
488. 

Constitution of United States signed, 433. 
See Amendments. 

Constitutions of Clarendon, 232. 

Consulate, French, 448, 461 ; Roman, es- 
tablished, 93 ; first plebeian consul, 101 ; 
age of eligibility, 120 ; treatment under 
the empire, 147. 

Conventicle act, 379. 

Convention parliament, 378, 385. 

Convocation, 340, 437. 

Convulsionnaires, 446. 

Cook, James, voyages of, 442. 

Coote, Sir Eyre, 444. 

Copenhagen, capture of, 249; 1st bom- 
bardment, 470 ; battle of, 536 ; 2d bom- 
bardment, 537 ; peace of, 373. 

Corcyra, 64, 66. 

Corday, Charlotte, 454. 

Cordeliers, 451. 

Cordova, Caliphate of, 183, 209. 

Cordova, Gonsalvo de 818. 

Corea, conquered by Chinese, 32 ; by Jap- 
anese, 33 ; treaty with Japan, 564. 

Corfinium, capital of Italia, 129. 

Corinth, origin, 48 ; national assembly at, 
37 



73 ; joins Achaean leaffue, 79 ; destroyed, 

80, 122. 
Corinthian war, 70. 
Coriolanus, 97. 
Corn laws repealed, 542. 
Cornaro, Catherine, 262. 
Corneille, 371. 
Cornwallis, lord, in the Southern States, 

430 ; surrender of, 431, 441 ; in India, 

541. 
Coroebus, 51. 

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 287. 
Coronea, battle of, 63, 70. 
Corporation act, 379, 539. 
Corpus Catholicorum, 371. 
Corpus Evangelicorum, 371. 
Corpus juris civilis, 210. 
Correggio, 328. 
Corsica, Phocaeans driven from, 19, 26, 84 ; 

assigned to Sextus Pompeius 146 ; king- 
dom of, 415. 
Cortenuova, battle of, 224. 
Cortereal, Gaspar and Miguel de, 284. 
Cortes at Cadiz, 473. 
Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 285; 

discovers Lower California, 287. 
Corvinus, Matthias, k. of Hungary, 253. 
Cosa, Juan de la, 284. 
Council of ten, 262. 
Council of the church, first oecumenical, 

159; last, 159, 512. 
Count of the Saxon Shore, 38. 
Courcelles, gov. of New France, 364. 
Court of Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's 

Bench, 266. 
Courtrai, battle of, 254. 
Couthon, 454, 456. 
Covenant. See, Solemn League. 
Covenanters, defeat of, 379. 
Covilham, 353. 
Cowpens, battle of, 431. 
Coxe, 365. 

Cracow, 414 ; free state of, 483. 
Cradock, Matthew, gov. of Mass. Bay, 295. 
Cranmer, archb. of Canterbury, 335 ; burnt 

338. 
Crassus, expedition against Parthia, 30, 

133 ; democrat, 136, 137 ; consul, 140. 
Craterus, 74 ; regent of West, 76 ; in the 

Lamian war, 79. 
Craven, gov. of Carolina, 417. 
Crawford, W. H.. U. S. sec. of the treas., 

551. 
Cr^cy, battle of, 248, 257. 
Crefeld, battle of, 405. 
Cremona, 35 ; founded, 112 ; battle of, 151 ; 

diet, 224. 
Crescentius, 197. 
Crespy, peace of, 305. 

Crete, Phoenician settlements in, 17; un- 
der Minos, 18, 41 ; assigned to Brutus, 

144; belongs to Venice, 326; yielded to 

Turks, 416. 
Crimean war, 499, 500, 543; end of, 531. 
Critias slain, 69. 
Croatia, 511. 
Croesus, k. of Lydia, conquers Grecian 

cities, intercourse with Greece, war with 

Persia, 21, 22; defeated, 22, 26; story of 

his miraculous rescue, 26. 
Cromwell, Oliver, sketch of life, 375 ; first 

speech, 343; " Ironsides," 347 ; Marston 



614 



Index. 



Moor, 348 ; lieutenant-general, 349; lord 
protector, 376 : turns out the rump, ^76 ; 
rejects title of king, 377 ; death, 377. 

Cromwell, Richard, 876, 377. 

Cromwell, Thomas, 336. 

Crown Point, 421, 428. 

Crozat, sieur Antoinc, 365. 

Crusades, cause, 213; 1., 214; IT., III., 
215; IV., V., 216; VI., VII., 217; re- 
sults, 217. 

Ctesiphon, 153, 192. 

Cuba discovered, 278, 2S2 ; circumnavigat- 
ed, 2S4 ; conquered, 284 ; attack on, 419. 

Culloden, battle of, 438 

Culpepper, lord, grant in America, 357. 

Cumberland, d. ot, became k. of Hanover, 
542. 

Cumberland Straits, discovery of, 289. 

Cunaxa, battle of, 29. 

Cunctator. See Fabius. 

Cup-bearer, 195. 

Curiae, 91. 

Curio subjugated Sicily, 141. 

Curius Dentatus, M\, 106. 

Curland, incorporated with Russia, 414. 

Curland, d of, restored, 373. 

Custine, gen. 453, 454. 

Custozza, battle of, 494, 510. 

Cyaxares, overthrows Nineveh, 15, 16; war 
with Alyattes, 21, 25. 

Cybele, Lydian goddess, 21. 

Cylon, insurrection of, 51. 

Cymbeline, 37. 

Cynoscephala;, battle of, 71, 80, 119. 

Cynric, 178. 

Cyprus, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; Phoeni- 
cian colonies in, 17, 41 ; given to Guy of 
Lusignan, by Richard of England, 215 ; 
given by Catherine Cornaro to Venice, 
262; surrendered to the Turks, 326; 
given to England, 524 ; British take pos- 
session, 545. 

Cyrene in Africa, hostilities with Egypt, 
6 ; founded, 19 ; submits to Cambyses, 
27 ; conquered by Darius, 28 ; assigned 
to Cassius, 144. 

Cyrus, emp. of Persia, deposes Astyages, 
62 ; defeats Croesus, 21, 26 ; takes Baby- 
lon, 16, 26 ; death, 27 ; the younger, 29. 

Cyzicus, battle of, 68, 134. 

Czartorvski, 490. 

Czaslau, battle of, 401. 

Czechs, 493. 

Dablon, 364. 

Dacia, war with Rome, 152, 153 ; made a 
Roman province, 152 ; given up by Au- 
relian, 157. 

Daedalus, 18. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 292. 

Daleearlians, revolt of the, 352. 

Dalhousie, e. of, gov. gen in India, 546. 

Dalmatia, 525, 526. 

Dalziel, 379. 

Damascus, defection from Solomon, 9 ; 
captured hx Ramannarari, 14,136; sul- 
tanate of, 210. 

Damiens, 416. 

Damietta, captured, 217. 

Din no ura, battle of, 242. 

Dan the Famous, k. of Norway, 207. 

Danaus, 44. 



Danby, impeachment, 381, 3S3, 384; pres. 
of privy council, 385. 

Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 216, 262. 

Dauegeld, instituted, 205 : abolished. 231. 

Danelagh, 204 ; reconquered and lost, 206. 

Danes. See Denmark, Northmen. In Pug- 
laud ; three epochs of their ravages. 208 ; 
treaty of Wedmore, 204 ; massacre of 
Danes, 805 ; political conquest of Eng- 
land, 206. 

Dangerfield, 382, 3S3. 

Danish vespers, 205. 

Danueborg, 235. 

Dannevirke, 207. 

Dante Alighieri, 263. 

Danton, member of Cordeliers, 451, 452, 
453 ; of the Committee of Public Safety, 
454 ; execution, 455. 

Danzig, annexed to Poland, 413 ; captured 
by Napoleon, 469. 

Daras, battle of, 190. 

Dare, Jeanne, career, 260. 

Dardanos, peace of, 131. 

Dare, Virginia, 289. 

Darien, discovered by Columbus, 284 ; at- 
tacked by Drake, 289 ; Scotch settlement 
at, 362. 

Darius, name of several k.'s of Persia, I. 
succeeds Bardija, recaptures Babylon, 
27 ; war with Scythians, reforms, war 
with Ionian Greeks, with European 
Greeks, death, 28 : II. Nothus, 29 ; III., 
Codomannus, defeated by Alexander, 
death, 29, 74. 

Darnley, murdered, 338. 

Datis, 57. 

Daun, marshal, 404, 405. 

Dauphin, title of the heir to the French 
crown, 25S. 

Dauphin^ of Vienne, transferred to the 
crown of France, 258. 

David, k. of the Jews, 8, 9. 

David II., k. of Scotland, capture of, 268. 

Davila, 285. 

Davis, Jefferson, U. S. sec. of war, 555 ; 
pres. of the Confederate States, 556. 

Davis, John, Arctic voyages, 289, 290. 

Davout, on the Rhine, 467 ; defeated at 
Eylau, 469 ; in Hamburg, 476, 479. 

Day of the sections, 457. 

Decazes, ministry of, 527. 

Deccan, in India, geographical position, 
22 ; arrival of Hindus, 23 : state of, in 
1498,353; independence of, 442; passes 
under the control of the British, 541. 

Decebalus, 152, 153. 

Decelean war, 67. 

Decemvirs, 98. 

Decius, Roman emp., 156. 

1 Veins Mus P., 108. 

Declaration of Independence in Belgium, 
4S9 ; in the United States, 428. 

Declaration of indulgence, 3S0. 

Declaration of rights, 385. 

Declaration of rights and liberties, 424. 

Deerfield, Indian attack, 363. 

Defoe, Daniel, 889, 436. 

Deiotarus, k. of Galatia, 78, 136 ; submitt 
to Caesar. 142. 

Deira, 178. 

Dejoces, Median chief, 25. 

Delaware, lord, gov. of S. Virginia, 292. 



Index. 



615 



Delhi, in India. 22; sultans of, 241, 853 ; 
captured by Lake, 541 : revolt, 546. 

Delos, 41, 62. 

Delphi, advice to Croesus, 21 ; attacked by 
Gauls, 35; oracle, 51 ," plundered by 
Krisa, 54 ; by Phocians, 72. 

Demades, peace of, 73. 

Demaratus, 55, 58. 

Denies, 52. 

Demetrius, the false, 352. 

Demetrius Poliorcetes, 77 ; in Athens, 79. 

Democratic party in U. S., 548. 

Demosthenes, the general, 66, 67. 

Demosthenes, the orator, opposition to 
Philip, 72 ; forms alliance with Thebes, 
73 ; poisons himself, 79. 

Denain, battle of, 392. 

Denmark, people of, 164; early history, 
207 ; war with Charles the Great, 185 ; 
with Otto I., 195 ; with Otto IT., 197 ; in- 
vasion of England, 203, 204 ; conquest of 
England, 205, 206 ; under Waldemar the 
conqueror, 235 ; capitulation, 236 ; Union 
of Calmar, 237, 276 ; share in thirty 
years' war, 310 ; war with Sweden, 314 : 
feuds of the counts in, 352 ; lex regia, 
374 ; treaty with Sweden , 397 ; alliance 
with France, 470 ; receives Lauenberg, 
483 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 496 ; incorpora- 
tion of the duchies, 505 ; war with Aus- 
tria and Prussia, 505. 

Dennewitz, battle of, 477. 

Denys, Jean, 284. 

Deorham, battle of, 178. 

Derby, e. of, impeachment, 270. 

Derby, e., 1st ministry of, 543 , 2d, 544 ; 3d, 
544. 

Dermod, k. of Leinster, 232. 

Derwentwater, execution of, 437. 

Desaix, 460. 

Desiderius, k. of Langobards, 184. 

Desmoulins, Camille, at the storm of the 
Bastile, 449 ; member of Cordeliers, 451 ; 
executed, 455. 

Despensers, 267. 

Dessau, bridge of, battle, 310. 

Dessoles-Decazes, ministry of, 527. 

Detmold, battle of, 185. 

Detroit, besieged by Pontiac,423. 

Dettingen, battle of, 402. 

Deutsch-Brod, battle of, 252. 

Deuxponts. See Zweibriicken. 

Devolution, war of, 366. 

Diadochi, wars of, 76. 

Diams, 122. 

Diana of Poitiers, 320. 

Diaz, Bartholomasus, 280. 

Dictatorship, established, 93 ; nature, 94 ; 
opened to plebeians, 101 ; disappearance, 
123 ; Sulla assumes the office, 132. 

Diderot, 448. 

Didiufl, .lulianus, Roman emp., 154. 

Dido, 17, 18. 

Diebitch, 490. 

Dieskau, 421. 

Digges, sir Dudlev, 343. 

Dijon, battle of, 174, 25a 

Dillon, 545. 

Dinwiddie, Robert, gov. of Virginia, 420. 

Diocletianus, Roman emp , 158. 

Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. 

Directory, in Prance, 448 ; government of, 



457 ; 13th Fructidor, change within the 
directory, 459 ; 3d Prairial, reorganized, 
18th Brumaire, overthrown, 461. 

Disraeli. See Beaconsfield. 

Dissenters, 379. 

Dobrudsha, invaded by French, 500 : occu- 
pied by Russians, 522 ; ceded to Russia 
and exchanged for Bessarabia, 523, 524. 

Dodecarchy in Egypt, 6. 

Dodona, 43. 

Doffingen, battle of, 250. 

Doge of Venice, 262. 

Dolabella, consul, 144. 

Dolgoruky, family of, 410. 

Domitianus, Roman emp. , conquest of Brit- 
ain, 37 ; reign, 152. 

Donau worth, 308. 

Doomsday book, 229. 

Dorea, Andrea, doge of Genoa, 303, 326. 

Dorians in Asia Minor, subjugated by Croe- 
sus, 21; Dorus, mythical ancestor, 43; 
migration of, 48 ; Doric communities, 
48, 49 ; colonies, 49. 

Dorr rebellion, 554. 

Dorylseum, battle of, 214. 

Dost Muhammad, 546. 

Douglas, e. of, 270. 

Dover, secret treaty of, 380. 

Draco, 51. 

Dragonnades, 369. 

Drake, Francis, voyage around the world, 
289; New Albion, 289: expedition to 
West Indies, rescues Virginia colony, 290, 
339. 

Dred Scott case. 556. 

Drepanum, sea-fight at, 111. 

Dresden, peace of, 402 ; battle of, 477 ; up- 
rising in, 497 ; conference at, 498. 

Drogheda, statute of, 333. 

Drogheda, storm of, 375. 

Drogo, 199. 

Druids, 34. 

Drumclog, battle of, 381. 

Drusus, M. Livius, 125, 126, 128. 

Drusus (the younger), son of Tiberiui, 
campaigns in Germany, 167 ; poisoned, 
149. 

Dry den, John, 389. 

Dubienka, battle of, 413. 

Dublin, conquest of, 208, 209. 

Dubois, card., 445. 

Ducas, dynasty. 240. 

Duclerc, ministry, 535. 

Ducrot, 517, 518. 

Dudley, Joseph, pres. of New England 
361; gov. of Mass., 363. 

Dufaure, ministry in France, 534. 

Duilius, C 110. 

Dulcigno, ceded to Montenegro, 525. 

Dumouriez, 452, 453. 

Dunbar, battle of, 266, 375. 

Dundee. See Claverhouse, 386. 

Dunes, battle of the, 377. 

Dunkirk, siege of, 377 ; sold to France 
379. . 

Dunse, pacification of, 345. 

Dunstan, archb. of Canterbury, 205. 

Dupleix, gov. of Pondicherri, 443. 

Duppel, storming of, 506. 

Durazzo, house of, in Naples, 263. 

Dur-Sarrukin, 12, 15. 

Dutch in America, 298 ; in India, 354» 



616 



Index. 



Dutch war, 376. 

Dutch West India Company, 298. 
Duttlingen, hattle of, 314. 
Duumviri sacrorum, 85. 
Dyaush-pitar, 22. 
Dyrrhachium, battle of, 141. 

Eadberht, 180. 

Eadgar, 205. 

Eadgar, .Etheling, 206. 

Eadgar, k. of Scotland, 230. 

Eadmund Ironside, 205. 

Eadred, 205. 

Eadward (the elder), k. of England, 204 ; 
the confessor, 206. 

Eadwig, 205. 

Eadwin, earl of Mercia, 206 ; revolt of Eng- 
lish under, 229 ; k. of Northumbria, 179. 

Eastern empire, separated from western, 
161 ; under Justinian I., 210, 216 ; under 
Macedonian house, 210 ; under the houses 
of Ducas, Coninenes, and Angelus, 240 ; 
conquest of Constantinople, 278 ; plan 
to restore, 413. 

East Coths, in Southern Russia, 170 ; king- 
dom of, in Italy, 174 ; destroyed by Nar- 
ses, 175. 

East India bill, 442. 

East India Company of London, origin, 
354 ; charter renewed, 540 ; government 
of India ceases, 544 ; exclusive trade 
with China ceases, 561. 

East Indies, ocean route to, discovered, 
279. See, also, India. 

Eastphalia, 185. 

East Roumelia, province of, 524. 

Eberhard, d. of Franconia, 195 ; d. of 
Wurtemberg, wars with Rudolf I. , 244 ; 
der Greiner, wars with cities, 249. 

Eberwiz. See Chosroes II. 

Ecbatana, 24, 25, 26, 28. 

Ecclesiastical commission, new court of, 
383. 

Ecclesiastical titles bill, 543. 

Ecgberht, k. of Wessex, lord of England 
south of the Forth, 180, 181, 203. 

Eck, 301. 

Eckmiihl, battle of, 471. 

Eclipse of the sun, 21. 

Ecnomus, battle of, 110. 

Ecuador, republic of, 488. 

Edda, elder and younger, 165. 

Edessa, captured, 215. 

Edgehill, battle of, 347. 

Edict of Nantes, promulgation, 324 ; revo- 
cation of, 369 ; of restitution, 310 ; of 
tolerance of Joseph II., 407. 

Edinburgh, treaty of. 338 ; liturgy in, 344 ; 
general assembly, 345. 

Edmund, St., k. of England, 203. 

Edward I., k. of England, agreement with 
Philip IV., of France, 254 ; reign, 263, 
264 ; reforms, 266 ; II., reign, 267 ; III., 
reign, 268 ; war with France, 257 ; laws in 
Ireland, 269 ; IV., reign, 272, 274 ; invades 
France, 260; V., reign, 275; VI., reign, 
336. 

Edward the Black Prince, victorvof Poitiers, 
258; aids Peter the Cruel, 276; death, 
2G9. 

Egmont, at Gravelines, 321 ; sketch of life, 
execution, 330. 



Egremont, sec. of state, 439. 

Egypt, geography, religion, 2 ; civiliza« 
tion, chronology, 3 ; old empire, neK 
empire, 4 ; stories of Sesostris, 5 ; not con- 
quered by Assyrians 961 B. C, 5 n. 2 ; con- 
quered by Ethiopians, 6 ; by Assyrians, 
6, 14 ; revolt of Psamethik, 6 ; becomes 
a province of Persia, 7; conquered by 
Cambyses, 27 ; under the Ptolemies, 77 : 
conquered by Caesar, 143 ; Roman prov- 
ince, 147 ; reconquered by Aurelian, 157 ; 
by Muhammedans, 182 ; sixth crusade, 
217 ; revolt of Mehemed Ali, 491 ; revolt 
of Arabi Pasha, 546. 

Eider-Danes, 505. 

El, 13. 

El Dorado, 288. 

Eiagabalus, Roman emp., 155. 

Elam, empire of, 13. 

Elba, conferred upon Napoleon, 481. 

Eldon, lord chan., 536. 

Eleanor of Poitou, married Louis VII., and 
afterward Henry of Anjou, 226. 

Eleanor, wife of Edward I. of England, 
death of, 264. 

Electoral reform bill in Italy, 526. 

Electors of the H. R. E., 248. 

Electro-magnetism discovered, 487. 

Elgin, lord, viceroy of India, 546; envoy 
to China, 561. 

Elijah, 9. 

Eliot, John, missionary, 357. 

Eliot, sir John, 341, 343. 

Elisha, 9. 

Elissa, founds Carthage, 18. 

Elizabeth of Bohemia, 341. 

Elizabeth of Valois, 324, 330. 

Elizabeth, q. of England, reign, 338, 339. 

Elizabeth, tsarina of Russia, ally of Aus- 
tria, 403; death relieves Frederic, 405; 
reign, 411. 

Elizabeth Islands, 290. 

Ellenborough, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. 

Ellichpur, kingdom founded, 353; con- 
quered by Auranzeb, 389. 

Elster, battle of the, 478. 

Ely, capture of, 229. 

Emadeddin Zenki, 215. 

Emancipation of the serfs in Russia, uOO. 

Emancipation proclamation, 558. 

Embargo policy of U. S., 550. 

Emir-al-Mumenin, 182 ; al Omra, 210. 

Emmanuel Philibert, d. of Savoy, 326. 

Emmanuel the Great, k. of Portugal, 332. 

Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, 536. 

Emund Gammle, k. of Sweden, 208. 

Enactment of the delegates, 464. 

Encumbered estates act, 543. 

Endicott, John, 295, 296. 

Enghien, d. of. See Conde. 

Enghien, d. of executed, 465. 

England. See Britain. Teutonic conquest, 
176 ; West Saxon kings, 203 ; Danish su- 
premacy, 206; Norman conquest, 206; 
Norman kings, 229 ; house of Piantagenet, 
large possessions in France, 231 ; conquest 
of Ireland, 232 ; magna charta, 233 ; par- 
liament, 234; hundred years' war, 257: 
loses French possessions, 260 ; annexation 
of Wales, 264 ; reforms under Edward I. 
266 ; first perfect parliament, 267 ; Scot 
land lost, 268 ; black death, 268 ; peace 



Index. 



617 



of Bretigny, 268 ; peasant revolt, 269 ; 
house of Lancaster, 270 ; wars of the 
Roses, 272 ; house of York, 272 ; settle- 
ments in America, 289, 291-298 ; house 
of Tudor, 333; secession from the Ro- 
man Catholic church, 335 ; house of 
Stuart, personal union with Scotland, 
339 ; long parliament, 345 ; great rebel- 
lion, 347; execution, of Charles I., 351; 
British in India, 354 ; commonwealth, 
375; monarchy restored, 878; interreg- 
num, 384 ; revolution, 385 ; bill of rights, 
386 ; war of the Spanish succession, 388, 
390 ; protestant succession secured, 393 ; 
union with Scotland, 434 ; peace of 
Utrecht, 435 ; house of Hanover, 436 ; war 
with Spain, 419, 437; war of the Aus- 
trian succession, 419, 438 ; peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, 404, 419, 438 ; adoption of 
new style, 438 ; seven years' war, 404, 
420, 438, 445 ; peace of Paris, 422, 439 ; 
war with the revolted American colonies, 
424, 426, 440 ; peace of Versailles, 432, 441 ; 
armed neutrality, 413, 441 ; British in 
India, 443 ; war with France, 453, 535 ; 
with Holland, 535 ; with Spain, 535 ; 
union with Ireland, 463, 536 ; Peninsula 
war, 471, 479 ; treaty of Vienna, 482, 537 ; 
Waterloo, 538 ; war with United States, 
474, 551 ; commercial panic, Catholic 
emancipation, 539 ; reform act, 540 ; ab- 
olition of slavery, 540 ; India, 541 ; Vic- 
toria, 542 ; quoen, sovereign of India, 
544 ; Irish troubles, 545 ; India, 545. 

English Pale, 270. 

Enkoeping, battle of, 238. 

Enzio, k. of Sardinia, 225. 

Epaminondas, 71. 

Ephialtes, law of, 62. 

Ephialtes, the traitor, 59. 

Ephthialites, wars with Persia, 189, 190. 

Epigoni, war of the, 47. 

Epirus, 41 ; allied with Macedonia, 79 ; sub- 
dued by Flamininus,119 ; punished, 121. 

Episcopacy in England, 338 ; restored in 
Scotland, 340 : abolished, 344 ; attempt 
to introduce, 379 ; abolished 386 ; not 
introduced at the union, 434. 

Equity, 266. 

Eresburg, captured, 185 ; battle of, 195. 

Eretria, deserts the Ionians, 28 ; captured, 
57. 

Erfurt, assembly of princes at, 471. 

Erfurt, parliament of, 498. 

Erie canal, 552. 

Erigena. See Joannes Scotus. 

Erik, Ejegod, k. of Denmark, 208 ; Glip- 
ping, k. of Denmark, 236 ; Menved, k. of 
Denmark, 236. 

Erik, Blodoxe, k. of Norway, 208 ; Graa- 
fett, k. of Norway, 208 ; Priest-hater, k. 
'of Norway, 238. 

Erik Edmundsson, k. of Sweden, 208; IX., 
the saint, k. of Sweden, 237; Eriksson 
Laspe, k. of Sweden, 237; XIV. of 
Sweden, 352. 

Erik the Red, discovery and settlement of 
Greenland by, 209. 

Erikson, Leif and Thorwald, 281. 

Ermanarich, k. of Bast Goths, 170. 

Ermeland, bishopric of, 373. 

Ernestine line in Saxony, 3u5. 



Ernst, d. of Swabia, revolt of, 198. 

Ernst August, k. of Hanover, 491. 

Erskine, lord chan., 537. 

Eryx, 111. 

Esarhaddon, k. of Assyria, 6, 15. 

Espartero, 490. 

Essex, settled, 178. 

Essex, e. of, rebellion, 339. 

Essex, e. of, in cabinet, 381 ; suicide, 382. 

Essling, battle at, 472. 

Estaing, c. d', in America, 430. 

Estaples, peace of, 333. 

Este map, 284. 

Esthonia, retained by Denmark, 236; re« 
nounced by Poland, 373. 

Estridsen, dynasty in Denmark, 207; ex- 

, tinct. of, 235. 

Etats-Ge'ne'raux, summoned by Louis XIII. 
the last time before 1789, 324; sum- 
moned by Louis XVI., 449. 

Ethandun, 'battle of, 204. 

Ethiopians, attacked by Seti I., 5 ; founda- 
tion of the kingdom of Napata, 5 ; con- 
quer Egypt, expelled by Eserhaddon, 6, 
15 ; war against, 148. 

Etruria, kingdom of, 463. 

Etruscans, expel the Phocaeans from Cor- 
sica, 19 ; country of, 81 ; ethnography, 
86; war with Rome, 95; Veii taken by 
Rome, 99; all southern Etruria submits 
to Rome, 103 ; share in second Samnite 
war, 105 ; in the second, 106 ; peace with 
Rome, 108. 

Euboea, 41 ; land given to Athenians, 55 ; 
Persian ships lost at, 59 ; second division 
of land, 63. 

Euclides, laws of, 69. 

Eudes, c. of Paris, 201, 202. 

Eugene, pr., sketch of life, 370 ; war with 
Turks, 372 ; head of grand alliance, 391, 
392 : war with Turks, 397, 398. 

Eugene, viceroy, 472. 

Eugenie de Monti jo, 531. 

Eugenius, Roman emp., 161. 

Eugenius IV., pope, 253. 

Eumenes, k. of Pergamus, 76, 78 ; ally of 
Rome, 119, 120. 

Eumolpus, 44. 

Eupatridse, 45, 51 , 54. 

Euphrates, expedition of Seti I. to, 5; 
Babylon built on, 12 ; diverted by Cy* 
rus, 26 ; battle of, 135. 

Euripides, 64. 

Europa, 18. 

Eurybiades, 59. 

Eurymedon, battle of the, 62. 

Eutaw, battle of, 431. 

Everett, Edward, U. S. sec. of state, 555. 

Evesham, battle of, 234. 

Exarchate, 175 ; given to the papacy, 184. 

Exchequer, reestablished, 231 ; closed by 
Charles II., 380. 

Exodus of the Jews, 8. 

Eylau, battle of, 469. 

Ezekiel, 11. 

Fabii, 97, 100. 

KaHus Maximus, Q. (Cunctator), 114, 115,' 

Rullianus, Q., 108, 105, 106. 
Fabricius, C, victory of, 107, 108. 
Fairfax, sir Thomas, 348, 349 ; superseded 

by Cromwell, 375. 



618 



Index. 



Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, 262. 

Falk, 525. 

Falkirk, battle of, 266. 

Falkirk Moor, battle of, 438. 

Falkland, lord, 346, 348. 

Falkoeping, battle of, 237, 238. 

Farmer, pres., of Magdalen college, 383. 

Farnese, extinction of the family, 3^8. 

Fatima, 182. 

Fatimites, 213, 214. 

Faust. See Fust. 

Faventia, battle, 131. 

Favre, 512, 517. 

Fawkes, Guy, 340. 

February revolution, 492. 

Federalist party, 548. 

Fehrbellin, battle of, 368, 374. 

Fenelon, 371. 

Fenians, 545. 

Fenwick, condemned, 388. 

Feodor, tsar of Russia, 374. 

Ferdinand, archd. of Austria, 467. 

Ferdinand the Catholic, k. of Aragon, 276, 
318 ; marries Isabella of Castile, 328. 

Ferdinand I., emp. of Austria, 491 ; abdi- 
cates, 495. 

Ferdinand, d. of Brunswick. See Bruns- 
wick. 

Ferdinand emp. of H. R. E., relation to 
Spain, 301, 303; reign, 306; II., 308, 
309; III., 314. 

Ferdinand VI., k. of Spain, reign, 414 ; VII., 
479,482,490. 

Ferdinand, k. of Naples, expelled by Napo- 
leon, 468 ; reinstated, 484. 

Ferdinand, k. of Two Sicilies, 416. 

Ferdinand Joseph, of Tuscany, 416. 

Ferrex, 37. 

Ferry, Jules, ministry of, 534. 

Ferry Bridge, battle of, 274. 

Fetiales, college of, 85. 

Feudal system in China, 32 ; in Europe, 
166; in Japan, 212; iu Norway, 208 ; in 
England, 229. 

Feuillants, 451. 

Fidenae, 88. 

Fiefs declared hereditary, 201. 

" Field of Lies," 1S6. 

Fieschi ; s infernal machine, 529. 

Fiesco, conspiracy of, 326. 

Fillmore, Millard, 555. 

Fimbria, 131. 

Financial crisis in U. S. , 552, 553. 

Finch, sir H., e. of Nottingham, 380. 

Firbolgs, in Ireland, 39. 

Firdusi, 25. 

Fire worship, 25. 

Fisher's Hill, battle of, 558. 

Fisheries, in peace of Paris, 432 : partially 
settled, 560. 

Fitz Peter, Geoffrey, 233. 

Five Forks, battle of, 559. 

Flaccus, L. Valerius, 130. 

Flaccus, M. Fulvius, 125. 

Flambard, Ranulf, 230. 

Flamines, 85. 

Flamininus, T. Quinctius, 119. 

Flaminius, 114. 

Flanders, independence recognized, 254 ; 
acquired by Burgundy, 329; ceded to 
France, 456. 

Ha via u emperors, 141. 



Fleix, treaty of, 322. 

Fletcher, gov. of New York, 362. 

Fleurus, battle of, 370, 456. 

Fleury, card., 446. 

Flodden Field, battle of, 334. 

Florence, under the Medici, 263 ; Savona- 
rola, 327 : peace of, 463 ; becomes capi* 
ta.l of Italy, 503. 

Florida discovered, 284 ; ceded by Spain 
to England in 1763, 437 ; restored to 
Spain in 17S3, 441 ; sold by Spain to the 
United States, 552 ; admitted to the 
Union, 554. 

Foix, Gaston de, 318. 

Fokchany, battle at, 413. 

Folkunger dynasty, 237. 

Fontainebleau, peace at, 406 ; preliminary 
articles, 422 ; Napoleon at, 481. 

Fontanetum, battle of, 186. 

Fontenoy, battle of, 402, 438, 446. 

Formosa, island of, 31 ; conquered, 390 ; re- 
bellion, 444 ; Japanese expedition, 564. 

Forster, W. E., chief sec. for Ireland, 546. 

Fort Christiana, 298; Donelson surren- 
dered, 557 ; Du Quesne, 420 ; expedition 
against, 421 ; Edward, construction, 421 ; 
Erie, captured, 551 ; Fisher, surrendered, 
559; George, captured by Montcalm, 
421 ; Henry, captured by Union forces, 
557 ; Moultrie, see Fort Sullivan ; Ne- 
cessity, 420 ; Orange, built, 298 ; St. 
George, built, 294 {see Madras) ; Pitt, 
423 ; Sullivan, 427 : Sumter fired upon, 
557; Washington, 428 ; William Henry, 
captured by Montcalm, 421. 

Forum Roman urn, 82. 

Fossalta, battle of, 225. 

Fotheringay, treaty of, 274. 

Fouque, 405. 

Fouquier-Tinville, 455, 456. 

Fox, voyage of, 300. 

Fox, Charles James, sketch of life, 441; 
India bill, libel bill, 535 ; for. sec, 537. 

Fox, Henry. See lord Holland. 

France. See Franks. Capetian dynasty 
of French kingdom, capital at Paris, 202 : 
royal weakness, 203 ; loss of Poitou, 
Guyenne, and Gascony, 226 : administra- 
tion of Suger,226; Philip II., Augustus, 
crusades, 226 ; Bouvines, St. Louis, 
growth of royal domain, 227 ; quarre witb 
Boniface VIII., 254 ; Courtrai, 254 ; Salio 
law, 255 ; house of Valois, 257 ; hun- 
dred years' war, Cr6cy, 257 ; black death, 
Poitiers, 258 ; peace of Bretigny, 258 ; 
Agincourt, 259 ; Jeanne Dare, English 
expelled, 260; Burgundy united with 
crown of France, 262 ; houses of Orleans 
and Angouleme, 317, 318; Francis I., 
319; wars with Charles V., 302; house 
of Lorraine and Guise, 320 ; Brittany 
united with crown, 320 ; capture of Ca- 
lais, 321 ; St. Bartholomew, 321 ; wars of 
the Huguenots 321, 324 ; house of Bour- 
bon, 324 ; Henry IV., edict of Nantes, 
324 ; last states-general, 325 ; Richelieu, 
325; era of Louis XIV., 365; Mazarin, 
Fronde, 366 ; France in thirty years' 
war, 314 ; peace of Pyrenees, 366 ; peace 
of Nimwegen, 368 ; reunions, 368 ; revo- 
cation of edict of Nantes, 369 ; peaoa 
of Ryswick, 371 ; golden age of liters' 



Index. 



619 



ture, 371', war of Spanish succession, 
390; partition treaties, 391 ■, peace of 
Utrecht 393; Fleury's administration, 
446 ; France in Austrian succession, 400 ; 
seTen years' war, 404, 424 ; peace of 
Paris, 441 ; Louis XVI., 446; France in 
war of American independence, 431 ; first 
French revolution, 448 ; storm of Bas- 
tile, 449; constituent, 449; legislative, 
451 ; convention, 452 ; first coalition, 452; 
first republic, 453: directory, 457; second 
coalition, 460 , consulate, 457 ; third coa- 
lition, 467 ; first empire, 465 ; wars, 468, 
471, 474,475; congress of Vienna, 482; 
hundred days, 483 ; restoration of the 
Bourbons, Louis XVIII., 529 ; July rev- 
olution, 529 ; second republic, 530 ; sec- 
ond empire, 531 ; Crimean war, 499 ; 
Franco - German, 513 ; third republic, 
532; excesses of the socialistic com- 
mune, 532 ; fall of MacxMahon, 534 ; 
Tonquin, 535. 

Franche-Conite\ 367, 368. 

Francis, d. of Alen^on, 322. 

Francis, d. of Guise, 319, 321. 

Francis I., emp. of Austria, 468. 

Francis I., k. of France, reign, 319 ; IT.., 
321, 338. 

Francis I., emp. of H. R. E., 402 ; II., 452 ; 
abdicated the crown of the H. R. E., 468. 
See Francis I., emp. of Austria. 

Francis II., k. of Two Sicilies, 503. 

Francis Joseph I., emp. of Austria, 495, 
602, 505, 509 ; k. of Hungary, 511. 

Francis, Philip, 444. 

Francis Stephen, d. of Lorraine, 398. See 
Francis I., emp, of H. R. E. 

Franco-German war, 513, 532. 

Franconia, duchy of, 181, 194, 313. 

Franconian or Salian emperors, 198. 

Frankfort, imperial chamber at, 300 ; grand 
duchy of, 468, 478 ; uprising, 490 ; pre- 
liminary parliament, 492 ; parliament re- 
opened, 498 ; incorporated with Prussia, 
510 ; peace of, 520. 

Frankland, organization of, 432. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 420; minister to 
France, 430 ; death, 547. 

Frank-pledge, 232. 

Franks, Ripuarian and Salian, 170, 171 ; 
Chlodwig, ruler of, 173 ; under the Mero- 
wingians, 181 ; under Pke Carolingians, 
183; Charles the Great, 184; treaty of 
Verdun, 187 ; later Carolingians, 201 ; 
Northmen in France, 209 ; extinction of 
Carolingians, 209. See France. 

Fratres arvales, 85. 

Fredegunde, 181. 

Frederic, burgr. of Nuremberg, 251. 

Frederic I., k. of Denmark and Norway, 
352 ; IV., 394, 409; V., 409; VII., 505. 

Frederic I., Barbarossa, euip. of II. R. E., 
crusade, 215 ; reign, 219 ; expeditions to 
Italy, 219, 221, 222, 235; II., 223, 224; 
cession to the Danes, 235 ; charter to 
Schwyz, 245 ; III. (of Austria), 247 ; III. 
(IV.), reign of, 253. 

Frederic of Hohenstaufen, 200. 

Frederic of Hohenzollern, 244. 

Frederic the Warlike, d. of Austria, 224. 

Frederie the Warlike, inarg. of Meissen, 
251. 



Frederic the Warlike, d. of Saxony, 252. 

Frederic V., elector palatine, elected to 
throne of Bohemia, 309. 

Frederic I., k. of Prussia, 372; II., the 
Great, reign. 400 ; first Silesian war, 400 ', 
second, 402 ; seven years' war, 403 ; war 
of Bavarian succession, 406 ; league of 
princes, death, 408. 

Frederic VIII., d. of Schleswig-Holstein. 
505. 

Frederic, d. of Swabia, 218, 219. 

Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, k. of Sweden, 396, 
409. 

Frederic Charles, pr. of Prussia, 505, 506, 
508, 509, 514, 518. 

Frederic William, el. of Brandenburg (the 
great elector;, accession, 314; peace of 
Vossem, 367 ; Fehrbellin, 368 ; Polish 
affairs, 373 ; Silesian duchies, 401. 

Frederic William I., k. of Prussia, 397 ; 
death, 398; II., 451; III., 459; con- 
quered by Napoleon, 469 ; appeal to the 
people, 475, 476 ; war of liberation, 477 ; 
in London, 482; IV., 491; declines ths 
German crown, 497 ; death, 503. 

Frederic William, crown pr. of Prussia, 
war with Austria, 508 ; with France, 
514. 

Fredericia, siege of, 496. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 557. 

Free soil party, 555. 

Freedmen's bureau, 559. 

Freiburg, battle of, 406 ; treaty of (la paix 
perpetuelle), 319. 

French revolution, 448. See, also, France, 
and Table of Contents, p. vi. 

French settlements in America, 363. 

Frey Yngve, k. of Sweden, 208. 

Freycinet, ministry of, 534, 535. 

Fribourg. See Freiburg. 

Fridigern, k. of West Goths, 171. 

Friedewald, treaty of, 305. 

Friedland, battle of, 469. 

Friedrichsburg, peace of, 396. 

Friedrichshall, siege, 396. 

Friedrichsham, peace of, 473. 

Friedrichstadt, storm of, 497. 

Frobisher, Martin, voyages, 289. 

Frode the Peaceful, k. of Denmark, 207. 

Fronde, old and new, 366. 

Frontenac, gov. of Canada, 362, 364. 

Frontieres naturelles, 513. 

Fuca, Juande la, 290. 

Fugitive slave act of 1793, 548 ; revived in 
1850, 555. 

Fujiwara, family of, 212, 213, 243. 

Fulco of Anjou, k. of Jerusalem, 214. 

Fulton, Robert, 486, 550. 

Fulvius, M., 126. 

Fulvius Flaccus, Q., 118. 

Furrukabad, 541. 

Fiirstenwalde, treaty of, 249. 

Fushimi, battle of, 563. 

Ftissen, separate peace of, 402. 

Fust, Johann, 253. 

Gabelle, 258. 

Gades, Phoenician colony, 17 ; capture by 

Scipio, 117, 141. 
Gadsden purchase, 555. 
Gaekwars, 443. 
Gaels, 38, 176. 



620 



Index. 



Gaeta. siege of, 503. 

Gag resolutions, 553. 

Gage, general, gov. of Massachusetts, 425. 

Gaillard, Chateau, erection, 226, 232; fall, 
227. 

Galatia, 35, 37, 78. 

Galba, Sulpicius, Roman emp., 151. 

Galerius, 158, 159. 

Galilsea, 7, 11. 

Galileo Galilei, 327. 

Gallas, 313, 315. 

Gallatin, Albert, U. S. sec. of treas., 549. 

Gallia Cisalpina, 81, 144. 

Gallia Narbonensis, 36; Roman province, 
125. 

Gallienus, 156, 157. 

Gallus, Roman emp., 156. 

Gama, Vasco da, 279, 353. 

Gambetta, in opposition, 512 ; member of 
national defense, 517, 518, 519 ; speaker, 
534 ; ministry, 534 ; death, 535. 

Garay, gov. of Jamaica, 285. 

Gardiner, lord chan., 336. 

Garfield, James A., pres. U. S., 560. 

Garibaldi, invades Lombardy, Sicily, 502 ; 
death, sketch of life, 526. 

Garigliano, battle, 318. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 553. 

Gasca, Pedro de, pres. of Peru, 288. 

Gascony (Gascogne), 182 ; gained and lost 
with Eleanor, 226, 231 ; ceded to Eng- 
land, 258 ; lost by England, 260. 

Gaspee, destroyed, 425. 

Gaspereaux, 421. 

Gast, Pierre du, 290. 

Gastein, treaty of, 506. 

Gates, general, succeeds Schuyler: Bur- 
goyne surrenders to, 429 ; defeated by 
Cornwallis, 430. 

Gaugamela, battle of, 29, 74. 

Gauls, geography, religion, 34 ; civiliza- 
tion, chronology, emigrations, 35 ; con- 
quest of Gaul by Caesar, ending 51 b. c, 
36, 138 ; in Asia Minor, 78 ; invade La- 
tium, 100 ; wars with Rome, 103 ; Cisal- 
pine Gaul subjugated, 118 ; Cispadane 
and Transpadane Gauls Latinized, 118. 

Gaurus, battle of, 104. 

Gauta, 237. 

Gaveston, Piers, 267. 

Geert, c. of Holstein, 236. 

Gelimer, 174. 

Gellius Egnatius, 106. 

Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. 

Genealogies. 
Angouleme, 318. 
Anjou, 261. 

Augustus, family of, 148. 
Bonaparte family, 466. 
Bourbon, Louis IX., to Henry III., 323 ; 

Henry IV. to " Henry V.," 528. 
Brittany, descent of, 320. 
Brunswick, 43*i. 
Buckingham, 275. 
Burgundy, 261,329. 
Cleves-.Jiilich, 307. 
County Palatine, 369. 
Denmark, 239. 

England, sovereigns from Ecgbehrt to 
Henry III., 228 ; succession in 1553- 
1603, 337 ; descendants of Geo. III., 

. 538. 



Flanders, counts of, 228. 

France, succession in 1328, 256. 

France, succession from Louis VIII. <4 
Charles VIII., 261. 

Guise, 320 

Hanover or Brunswick, 436. 

Hapsburg, 301. 

Hapsburg, German branch, 399. 

Hohenstaufen, 220. 

Hohenzollern, since the assumption oi 
the royal title, 515. 

Lancaster and York, 273. 

Lorraine, 320. 

Naples, kings of, 261. 

Normandy, dukes of, 228. 

Norway, sovereigns of, 239. 

Orleans, 318. 

Portugal, illegitimate house of Burgun- 
dy, 332. 

Russia, descendants of Alexis, 410. 

Scottish succession, 265. 

Spanish succession, 390. 

Sweden, sovereigns of, 239. 

Valois, 257. 

Welfs, 220. 
General fundamentals, 297. 
General warrants, 440. 
Geneva annexed to France, 460 ; restored 

to Switzerland, 483 ; treaty of, 319. 
Gengis Khan. See Jenghiz Khan. 
Genji. See Minamoto. 
Genoa, war with Venice, 262 ; government, 

263, 326 ; republic of, 415 ; transformed 

into Ligurian republic. 459 ; given to 

Sardinia, 483. 
Genseric conquered Carthage, 172. 
Geoffrey of Anjou, 230 ; of Monmouth, 

235. 
George I. k of England, 436; death of, 

437; II., 403, 437 ; III., 439; insanity, 

537 ; death, 538 ; IV., 538, 539. 
George, k. of Greece, 505. 
George Podiebrad, k. of Bohemia, 253. 
George William, el. of Brandenburg, 311. 
Georgia, in America, settlement of, 418, 

420 ; Spanish attack upon, 419 ; pro- 
vincial gov. restored, 430 ; Sherman's 

march through, 558. 
Georgia, in Europe. See Iberia. 
Gepidse, 175. 
Gerbert, archb. of Rheims, 202- See Syl« 

vester II. 
Gergovia, siege of, 139. 
Germania magna, 163, 167. 
Germanicus, expeditions, 149, 167. 
Germantown, battle of, 429. 
Germany, geography, 162 ; high and low 

Germans, 163 ; ancient religion, 164 ; civ- 
ilization, 166 ; early history, 167 ; futile 
attempt of Rome to subdue, 148 ; habita- 
tions of the tribes in 4th cent., A. t>. 170 ; 
migrations and settlements, 170-175; 

Prankish empire under Merowingians, 
181 ; under Carol! ngians, 183 ; Charles the 
'Great, 184 ; renewal of the Roman em- 
pire, 185 ; treaty of Verdun, separation 
of French and German nationalities, 187 : 
Carolrngians in Germany, 193; Saxon 
house, 194; Holy Roman empire, 196, 
Frankish, or Swabian emperor's, 198 ; in- 
vestiture strife, 199 ; concordat of Worms 
201 ; house of Hohenstaufen, 219 ; Bur 



Index. 



621 



barossa, 219 ; Welf and Waiblingen (Ho- 
henstaufen), 223 ; interregnum, 225 ; Ru- 
dolf of Hapsburg, 244 ; Ludwig and 
Frederic, 247 ; Luxemburg emperors, 
golden bull, 248 ; city leagues, 249 ; 
council of Constance, 251 ; house of 
Hapsburg, 253 ; Max, 300 ; reformation, 
301; Charles V., 302; peace of Augs- 
burg, 306 ; anti-reformation, 306 ; thirty 
years' war, 308; peace of Westphalia, 
315 ; Leopold I., 371 ; war of the Span- 
ish succession, 390 ; pragmatic sanction, 
398 ; Polish succession, 398 ; male line of 
Hapsburg extinct, 400 ; war of Austrian 
succession, Maria Theresa, and Frederic 
the Great of Prussia, 400 ; seven years' 
war, 403 ; Joseph II., 407 ; war with first 
French republic, 453 ; peace of Lune- 
ville, 462 ; enactment of imperial dele- 
gates, 464 ; end of the Holy Roman em- 
pire, 468. Confederation of the Rhine, 
468 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress 
of Vienna, 482 ; establishment of the 
German confederation, 483 ; reactionary 
measures in Germany, 487, 490 ; founda- 
tion of the Zollverein, 491 ; Gottingen 
professors expelled, 491 ; revolutionary 
movements, 492 ; national assembly, 493 ; 
constitution completed, 497 ; conference 
at Olmiitz, 498 ; confederation renewed, , 
498 ; German ( Austro-Prussian) war, 507 ; ' 
North German confederation, 510, 511 ; 
Franco-German war, 513 ; capture of 
Paris, 519 ; German empire founded, 519, 
520 ; Kulturkampf , 521, 525 ; congress 
of Berlin, 524 ; tobacco monopoly de- 
feated, 526. 

Gero, nrargr., 194, 195. 

Gerontes, 50. 

Gerson, 251. 

Gertruydenburg, 393. 

Gessler, 246 

Geta, 155. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 558. 

Ghazni, supremacy of the sultans of, 211. 

Ghent, pacification of, 331 ; peace of, 474, 
537, 551. 

Ghibellines, 219. 

Gibraltar, whence named, 183 n. ; taken by 
English, 392, 434 ; ceded to England, 437 ; 
defended by Elliott, 440. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 289. 

Gilbert, Raleigh, 293. 

Ginkell, 387. 

Girondists, party, 451 ; execution of, 455. 

Giselbert, 195. 

Glabrio, xM. Acilius, 119, 135. 

Gladiators, war of the, 133. 

Gladstone, W. E., 542; chancellor of the 
exchequer, 543, 544 ; 1st administration, 
545 ; 2d administration, 546. 

Glasgow, general assembly at, 344. 

Glaucia, C. Servilius, praator, 128. 

Glencoe, massacre of, 387. 

Glendower, Owen, revolt of, 270. 

Gloucester, d. of, protector, 271. 

Gloucester, d. of, 274; becomes king Rich- 
ard III., 275. 

gneisenau, defeats Kolberg, 469 ; reforms 
the army, 471 ; at Waterloo, 4S4. 

Gnesen, archbishopric, 197- 

Goa, 353. 



Goben, gen. von, 519. 

Go-Daigo, 243. 

Goderich, lord, premier, 539. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 213, 214. 

Godfrey, k. of Denmark, 207. 

Godfrey the Bearded, d. of Lotharingia, 

199. 
Godfrey, Sir Edmondbury, 381. 
Godolphin, e. of, in council, 382 ; chanv 

berlain, 383 ; lord high treas., 433 ; dis- 

missed, 435. 
Godoy, 470. 

Godwine, e. of Wessex, 206. 
Goffe, 359, 360. 
Goidelic Celts, 37. 

Golconda kingdom, 353 ; annexed to Mu- 
ghal empire, 389 ; Nizam of, 443. 
Golden bull, of H. R. E., 248 ; of Hungary, 

277. 
Golden rule enunciated bv Confucius, 31. 
Gollheim, battle of, 245, 246. 
Gomez, Estevan, voyage of, 286. 
" Good" parliament, 269. 
Gordianus I., II., III., Roman emp., 155; 

Persian exp., 188. 
Gordias, kings of Phrygia, 22. 
Gordon assists Peter the Great, 374. 
Gordon, col. (" Chinese"), suppresses Tai- 

ping rebellion, 562. 
Gordon, lord George, 440. 
Gorges, Bir Fernando, 295-297. 
Gbrgey, 495. 

Gorkhas, conquest by Chinese, 444. 
Gorm the Old, k. of Denmark, 207. 
Gortschakoff , in Sebastopol, 500 ; retires, 

526. 
Gorz, baron von, 396, 406. 
Gosnold, Bartholomew, 290, 291. 
Goths, 164 ; location, 170 ; defeated by De- 

cius, 156 ; Goths in Sweden, 208. See 

Gauta, East Goths, West Goths. 
Gourges, Dominique de, 289. 
Graagaas, 209. 
Gracchus, Caius, attempts revolutionary 

reforms, 124 ; tribune, 125 ; death, 126. 
Gracchus, Tiberius, victory over the Celti- 

berians, 118. 
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, attempts 

revolutionary reforms, 124. 
Grafton, d. of, 424; administration, 424, 

440. • 
Granada, kingdom of, 275 ; conquest of, 

276. 
Grand alliance between England, Holland, 

and others, 370, 391. 
Grand remonstrance presented to Charles 

I., 346. 
Granicus, battle of the, 74. 
Granson, battle of, 262. 
Grant, U. S., takes Fort Donelson, 557; 

Vicksburg, 558; lieut.-gen., 558; Lea 

capitulates to, 659 ; president of U. S.. 

560. 
Granvella, b., 330. 
Grasse, de, 441. 
Gratianus, Roman emp., 160. 
Gravamina ecclesiastica, 317. 
Gravelines, battle of, 321. 
Gravelotte, battle of, 616. 
Great Britain. See England. 
Great contract, 341. 
Great protestation, 342. 



622 



Index. 



Great rebellion, in England, 347 ; in the 
United States, 557. 

Great wall of China, 32. 

Great war of liberation, 475. 

Greece, geography, 39 ; religion, 41 ; my- 
thological history, 43 ; Thessalian and 
Dorean migrations, 47; early constitu- 
tions, 50, 52; Persian wars, 28, 56-60; 
hegemony of Sparta, 56 ; hegemony of 
Athens, 61 ; age of Pericles, 64 ; Pelopon- 
nesian war, 64-69 ; hegemony of Sparta, 
69 ; hegemony of Thebes, 70 ; rise of 
Macedonia, 71; Macedonian supremacy, 
73 ; empire of Alexander, 73-76 , strug- 
gles of the Diadochi, 76 ; formation of 
separate kingdoms, 77 ; Lamian war, 79 ; 
Achsean and iEtolian leagues, 79 ; de- 
clared independent, 119 ; Macedonia, 
Roman province, 122 ; Achaia, Roman 
province, 147 ; Morea, conquered by Ven- 
ice, 372 ; by Turks, 3d7, 416 ; war of in- 
dependence, 488 ; revolution, 505. 

Greek colonies, 19, 2U. 

Greene, gen., 431. 

Greenland, discovery of, 209, 280. 

Gregorian calendar introduced, 327 
adopted by England, 420, 438 

Gregory I., pope, 175; VI., 199; VII.(Hil 
debrand), 199, 200 ; IX., 224 ; XII., 251 
abdicated. 252 ; XIII., reformed the cal 
endar, 327; XVI., 492. 

Grenville, George, prime minister, 423 
leader of Commons, 439. 

Grenville, lord, prime minister, 537. 

Grenville, sir Richard, 289. 

Grevy, Jules, pres. of the French republic, 
584. 

Grey, e., prime minister, 539 ; resigned, 540. 

Grey, lady Jane, 336. 

Grijalva, J nan de, 285. 

Grimoald, 175. 

Groehow, battle of, 490. 

Grodno, diet of, 41-3. 

Grosbeeren, battle of, 477. 

Gross-Gorschen, battle of, 476. 

Gross jagerndorf , battle of, 404. 

Grumbach, execution of, 306. 

Guadaloupe, Hidalgo, treaty of , 554. 

Guanahani, its identification, 282. 

Guastalla, house of, 311, 416. 

Guatimozin. k. of Mexico, 285. 

Guebriant, French marshal, 314. 

Guelfs. See YVelfs. 

Guesclin, Bertrand du, 259, 276. 

Cueux, 330. 

Guilford, battle of, 431. 

Guinegatf , " battle of the spurs," 319, 334. 

Guines captured from the English, 321. 

Guise, house of, 319,321. 

Guizot, 527; ministry of, 497, 529; with 
Soult, 530 

Gunpowder tirst used, 279. 

Gunpowder plot, 340. 

Gunther of Schwarzburg, 248. 

Guntram, 181. 

Guptas in India, 24, 210. 

Gurko, 522, 523. 

Gustavus I., Vasa, k. of Sweden, 352 ; II., 
Adolphus, reign in Sweden, 352 ; in the 
thirty years' war, 311 ; death of, 312 ; 
III., 409 ; IV., abdication of, 472. 

Gutenberg, John, early printer, 253. 



Guthorm, 204. 

Guy of Lusignan, k. of Jerusalam, 214. 

215, 216. 
Guyenne, transferred from France to Eng. 

land, 226, 231 ; ceded to England, 258 : 

lost, 260. See Aquitania. 
Guzerat, expedition of Mahmud to, 211; 

conquest of, 241 : Afghan kings, 353. 
Gyges, k. of Lydia, 6, 21. 
Gylippus, 67. 
Gyulay, 502. 

Habeas corpus act, 381; suspended, 388, 
535, 536, 538 ; in Ireland, 544. 

Hadrian, Roman emp., revolt of Jews un- 
der, 12, 37 ; reign, 153 ; in Britain, 176- 

Hafurstfjord, battle of. 208. 

Hagelberg, battle of, 477. 

Hague, convention of the, 396. 

Haidar Ali of Mysore, 442, 444. 

Haidarabad, nizam of, 443. 

Hakem II., 209. 

Hakodate, battle of, 563 

Hakon, k. of Norway, 208 ; IV., 238 : V., 
238 ; VII., 237, 238 ; VIII.. 238. 

Hakon Jarl, k. of Norway, 208. 

Hale, Nathan, 42S. 

Hales, sir Edward, 3«3. 

Halfdan the Black, k. of Norway, 208. 

Haliartus, battle of, 70 

Halifax, member of council, 381 ; in oppo- 
sition, 382 ; pres. of council, 383 ; pres 
of provisional council, 385 ; resigns, 387 
impeached, 388 ; not in council, 433 
whig leader, 435 ; first lord of treas. 436. 

Halifax, e. of, sec. of state, 439. 

Halland, 236, 238. 

Halys, 21, 134. 

Hamburg, free city, 222 ; conquered by 
Knut VI., 235 ; alliance with Liibeck, 
249 ; Davout in, 476 : siege of, 479 ; peace 
of, 405. 

Hamilcar, 20. 

Hamilcar Barak or Barcas, 111, 113. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 547, 549. 

Hampden, John, refuses to pay ship money, 
344 ; impeached, 346 ; death, 347. 

Hampden clubs, 538. 

Hampton court conference, 340. 

Han, dynasty in China, 32 ; later Han, 211. 

Hanau, battle at, 478. 

Hancock, John, 424. 

Hanging gardens in Babylon, 12. 

Hannibal, destroys Saguntum, 113 ; crosses 
the Alps, 113 ; arouses the Gauls, 35, 114 ; 
Canme, 115 ; before the gates of Rome, 
110 ; leaves Italy, 117 ; defeated at Zama, 
118 ; received by Antiochus, 119 ; death. 
120. 

Hanover, ninth electorate, 372 : treaty 
with Sweden, 396 ; allied with Prussia, 
404 ; treaty with England, 437 ; receives 
Osnabruck, 465 ; Prussia receives II., 
467 ; Napoleon wishes to take away, 468 ; 
occupied by French, 469 ; becomes king- 
dom under Geo. III. of England, 538; 
separation from Great Britain, 491, 542 ; 
invaded by Prussians, 508 ; incorporated 
with Prussia, 510. 

Hanseatic cities annexed to France, 473. 

Ilanseatic league, 237, 249. 

llapsburg counts in Switzerland, 245. 



Index. 



623 



Hapsburg, house of, 253; male line ex- 
tinct, 400 ; deposition, 495. 

Hardeknut. See Harthaenut. 

Hardenberg, 457, 482. 

Hardinge, sir Henry, gov. gen. in India, 
546. 

Harley, Robert, speaker, 388, 433; dis- 
missed from cabinet, 434 ; attempted as- 
sassination, 435 ; created earl of Oxford 
and Mortimer, 435. 

Harmodius, 54. 

Harold Hildetand, k. of Denmark, 207 ; 
Blue-tooth, k. of Denmark, 207 ; Heyn, 
k. of Denmark, 208. 

Harold I., Harefoot (son of Cnut), k. of 
England, 206; II. (son of Godwine), 
206. 

Harold Haarfager, k. of Norway. 208 
Hardrada, k. of Norway, invaded Eng 
land, 206 •, war with Denmark, 207 
founds Opsla, 209 ; Grille, k. of Norway 
238. 

Haroun-al-Rashid, 186, 210. 

Harpagus, 26. 

Harrison, Win. H., pres. of U. S., 554. 

Hartford convention, 551. 

Harthaenut, k. of England, 206 ; k. of Den- 
mark (Hardeknut), 207. 

Hartington, marquis of, sec. for India, 546. 

Harvard College, 297. 

Hasdrubal, in Spain, 113 ; defeated, 115 ; 
death, 117. 

Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, 117. 

Hastenbeck, battle of, 404. 

Hastings, battle of, 206. 

Hastings, Warren, sketch of life of, gov.- 
gen. of India, 444. 

Hatto, archb. of Mainz, 194. 

Havana, surrendered to English, 422 ; re- 
stored to Spain, 423. 

Hawaii, 442. 

Hayes, R. B., pres. of the United States, 
560. 

Haynau, 495, 496, 498. 

Hayne, colonel, 553. 

Heathfield, battle of, 179. 

Hebert, 451, 454, 455. 

Hebrides, conquest of, 209. 

Hector, 47. 

Hegemony of Argos, 48 ; of Sparta, 56, 69 ; 
of Athens, 61 ; of Thebes, 70 ; of Mace- 
donia, 73. 

Hegira, 182. 

Ilei. See Heike. 

Heidelberger Stallung, 250. 

Heike. See Taira. 

Heilbronn, league of, 313. 

Heinrich Raspe, 225. 

Heinsius, A., 391. 

Helena, 47. 

Heliasts, 53. 

Heliogabalus.' See Elagabalus. 

Heliopolis, battle of, 463. 

Helle, 46. 

Hellen, 43. 

Helluland, 281. 

Helots, 50; revolt, 62. 

Helsingborg, battle of, 249. 

Helvetian republic, 460. 

Helvetius, 448. 

Helvoetsluys, 384. 

Hemming, k of Denmark, 207. 



Hengestesdun, battle of, 181, 203. 

Hengist, 177. 

Hennepin, discovers Mississippi, 364. 

Henry, d. of Anjou. -See Henry III., k. 
of France. 

Henry the Bastard, k. of Castile, 276. 

Henry the Quarrelsome, d. of Bavaria, 196, 
197 ; the Proud, d. of Bavaria, 218, 219 ; 
Jasomirgott , d. of Bavaria, 219. 

Henry I., k. of England, reign, 230; II., 
Benuclerc, acquired Poitou, Guyenne, 
and Gascony by marriage, 226 ; reign, 
231 ; conquest of Ireland, Becket, 232 ; 
111. of England, reign, 234; IV. (d. of 
Lancaster), reign, 270 ; V., war with 
France, 259 ; reign, 271 ; VI. in France, 
259; reign, 271; captured, 277; put to 
death, 274; VII. (e. of Richmond), 275; 
reign, 333 ; VIII., alliance with Charles 
V., 305 ; reign, 334 ; head of church, 335. 

Henry I.,k. of France, 203 ; II., treaty with 
Charles V., 305; reign, 319 ; acquisition 
of Brittany, 320 ; of Calais, Metz, Toul, 
and Verdun, 321 ; 111., reign, 322 ; k. of 
Poland, 352; IV. (Navarre), part in the 
wars of religion, 322 ; reign, 324 ; '' V.," 
533. 

Henry I., k. of Germany, 194, 195 ; II. (the 
Saint), emp. H. R. E., 197, 198; III. 
(the Black), 19s* ; IV., 199, 200 ; V., 201 ; 
VI., 222, 2nd; VII., 245. 

Henry of Champagne, k. of Jerusalem, 216. 

Henry of Guise, 321. 

Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV.. k. of 
France. 

Henry of Plauen, 277. 

Henry, k. of Portugal, 240, 332. 

Henry, pr. of Prussia, 406, 407. 

Henry, e. of Richmond. See Henry VII. 
of England. 

Henry the Lion, d. of Saxony, 219; fiefs 
forfeited, 222 ; war with Henry VI., 223. 

Henry the Navigator, 276, 279. 

Henry, pr. of Wales, death of, 341. 

Henry, Patrick, 424, 426. 

Henrys, war of the three, 322. 

Heraclea, battle of, 108. 

Heracles, 45. 

Heraclidae, Lydian dynasty, 21 ; Dorian 
dynasty, 45 ; conquest of the Pelopon- 
nesus, 48 ; kings of Sparta, 50. 

Heraclius, Grecian emp., 191. 

Herbert, adm.,384. 

Herbert of Vermandois, 202. 

Herbois, Collot d', 453, 454, 458. 

Herculaneum, 83, 152. 

Hercules. See Heracles. 

Herdonius, 97. 

Hereward, 229. 

Hermandad, 328. 

Hermann of Balk, 218; of Salui, 200; of 
Salza, 218 ; Billung, marg. of Schleswig, 
195. 

Hermann, d. of Swabia, 197. 

Hermanrich. See Ermanarich, 170. 

Hermanstadt, battle of, 49J. 

Herminones, 163, 164. 

Hermunduri, 164, 167, 168. 

Hernius, battle on the, 26. 

Hernici join Latin league, 97 ; war with 
Rome, 103 ; Hernician league dissolved, 
106. 



624 



Index. 



Herod (the Great), k. of Judea, 11. 

Herod Agrippa, I., k. of Judea, 11. 

Herrenhausen, alliance of, 398. 

Herzegovina, revolt, 521 ; given to Aus- 
tria, 524 ; disturbance in, 525 ; sup- 
pressed, 526. 

Hesse, origin, 225, 492. 

Hesse-Cassel, in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; 
becomes an electorate, 464 ; not in con- 
federacy of the Rhine, 468 ; revolution 
in, 492 ; invaded by Prussians, 504 ; in- 
corporated with Prussia, 510. 

Hesse-Darmstadt, joins confederacy of the 
Rhine, 468 ; joins allies, 479. 

Hia, dynasty of, in China, 31. 

Hideyoshi, government of, 355, 356. 

Hiempsal, 126. 

Hienfung, 561. 

Hiero, k. of Syracuse, 110, 115. 

Hieroglyphics, 3. 

High Commission, 346. 

Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. 

Himera, battle of, 20. 

Hincmar of Rheims, 201. 

Hindus. See India. 

Hipparchus, 54. 

Hippias, 54, 57. 

Hippo, 17, 19. 

Hiram, k. of Tyre, 18. 

Hirhor, k. of Egypt, 5. 

Hirtius, 144. 

Hispania, citerior, 118 ; ulterior, 118, 141. 

Histiaaus of Miletus, 28. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 431. 

Hoche, 455, 457 ; expedition to Ireland, 
536. 

Hocbelaga. See St. Lawrence. 

Hochkirch, battle of, 405. 

Hochst, battle of, 310. 

Hochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. 

Hofer, Andreas, 471, 472. 

Hohenfriedberg, battle of, 402. 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 462. 

Hohenstaufen, house of. See Frederic of 
H, 219, 220. 

Hohenzollern. See Frederic, burggrave of 
Nuremberg, 244 ; acquires Brandenburg ; 
in Prussia, 302 ; in thirty years' war, 3ll, 
312 ; in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; kings 
of Prussia, 372 ; in the north and east, un- 
der the great elector, 368, 373, 374 ; gene- 
alogy, 515 ; emperors of Germany, 519. 

Hohenzollern, pr. of, 512, 513. 

Hojeda, Alonzo de, 283, 284. 

Ho jo, family of, 243. 

Holbach,448. 

Holkar, 443, 541. 

Holland, kingdom of, under Louis Bona- 
parte, 468 ; merged in kingdom of the 
Netherlands, 483 ; separated from Bel- 
gium, 439. See, also, Netherlands. 

Holland, lord, 439, 441. 

Holies, impeachment of, 346, 351. 

Holstein, given to Adolf of Schaumberg, 
218 ; Adolf capt. by Knut VI. of Den- 
mark, cedes H. to Waldemar, II., k. of 
Denmark, 235 ; ceded to Adolf the young, 
235 ; peace of Travendal, 394 ; united 
with Denmark, 409 ; war with Denmark, 
496 ; occupied by the German confedera- 
tion, 505 ; united with Prussia, 510. 
flolstein-Gottorp, d. of, 394, 397. 



Holstein-Gottorp, house of in Sweden, 409: 
in Russia, 411. 

Holy alliance, 485 ; Monroe's attitude con- 
cerning, 552. 

Holy league against France, 300, 318, 326, 
334. 

Holy league in France, 322. 

Holy Roman Empire, revival of Roman em« 
pire under Otto, 196 ; end of, 462, 468. 
See Germany. 

Holy wars, I., 52 ; II., 71 ; III., 72- 

Homer, 49. 

Homildon Hill, battle of, 270. 

Hone, acquittal of, 538. 

Honorius, Roman emp., 38, 161. 

Honorius III., pope, 224. 

Hooker, gen., 557, 558. 

Hoorn, c. von, executed, 330. 

Hophra, k. of Egypt, 6. 

Hopital, de 1', 321. 

Horatii, 89. 

Horatius, laws of, 98. 

Horatius, Flaccus, Q., 83, 147. 

Horatius, Marcus, 93. 

Horatius Codes, 95. 

Hormisdas I., emp. of Persia, 188 , II., 188, 
IV., 191. v 

Hormuz, battle of, 187. 

Hormuzan, 192. 

Horn, Gustavus, 312. 

Horsa, 177. 

Hortensius, dictator, 107. 

Hospitalers. See Knights of St. John. 

Hotel de Ville destroyed, 533. 

Hotham, adm., 484. 

Hotspur See Percy. 

Howe, lord, occupies Philadelphia, 429. 

Howick, first lord of the admiralty, 537} 
sec. of war, 540. See earl Grey. 

Hubert de Burgh, 234. 

Hubertsburg, peace of, 406. 

Hudson Bay Company, incorporation of. 
358. 

Hudson's Bay, discovery of, 299, 363. 

Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 298. 

Hudson river, 294, 298. 

Hugh the White, d. of France, 202. 

Hugh Capet, k. of France, 202. 

Huguenot colony in America, 288. 

Huguenots, wars of the, 321. 

Humbert I., k. of Italy, 524. 

Humboldt, W. von, 477, 482, 487. 

Hundred days in France, 526. 

Hundred years' war, 257."" 

Hungary, occupied by Magyars, 193, 277 ; 
Hungarians ravage Germany, 194 ; de- 
feated by Henry, 195; and Otto (Lech- 
feld), 196 ; lose Styria to Bohemia, 244; 
emp. Albert, II., k. of, 253; history to 
1490, 277 ; golden bull, 277 ; H. united 
with Bohemia and secured to emp. Max., 
278 ; war with Turks (Mohacs), disputed 
election, 303 ; Ferdinand I., elected k., 
306 ; succession secured to Hapsburg, 
372 ; Maria Theresa, q. of H., 400 ; Mo- 
riamur, etc., disputed, 401, n. ; revolt 
under Kossuth, 494 ; constitution abol- 
ished, 496 ; Feb. constitution, 504; con- 
stitution of H. restored, Austrian emp., 
k. of II. 511. 
Hung Sui-tsuen, leader of the Tai-ping re- 
bellion, 561 ; suicide, 562. 



Index. 



625 



Huns cross the Volga, 170 ; under Attila, 

173. 
Hunyadi, John, k. of Hungary, 278. 
Hurons, 364. 
Husain Ali, 442. 
Huskisson, 539. 
Huss, John, 252. 
Hussite war, 252. 

Hutchinson, gov. of Mass, 424, 425. 
Hutten, Ulrich von, 302. 
Hwang-bo, in China, 30 ; first settlements 

of Chinese made along, 31. 
Hydaspes, battle of, 75. 
Hyde, Anne, 383. 

Hyde, sir Edward. See Clarendon, earl of. 
Hyder Ali. See Haidar Ali. 
Hyksos, 4. 
Hyphasis, 75. 
Hyrcanus, 136. 

Iapygians, 85. 

Iberia, 34, 188. 

Iberville, 362. 

Ibrahim Pasha, 488, 491. 

Iceland, settled by Northmen, 280 ; con- 
quered by Hakon V., of Norway, 238. 

Iconium, sultanate of, 210. 

Iconoclasts, 210. 

Ida, " the flame bearer," 178. 

Idistaviso, battle of, 149. 

Idstedt, battle of, 497. 

Ilerda, 141. 

Illinois, 364 ; admitted to the Union, 552. 

Illiturgi, battle of, 115. 

Illyrian provinces, 472. 

Illyrians, war with Rome, 112 ; conquered, 
121. 

Imperial chamber, 300. 

Impositions, 340. 

Imprisonment for debt abolished in Eng- 
land, 545. 

Inaros, 28. 

Independents, 349, 350. 

India, visited by Tyrians, 18 ; geography, 
early religion, 22 ; arrival of Hindus in 
the Punjab, 22; settlement and con- 
quest, 23 , castes, ib. ; rise of Brahmism, 
ib. ; of Buddhism, ib. ; invasion of Alex- 
ander, 23, 75 ; Bactrian rulers, 24 ; Scyth- 
ians, Guptas, ib.; early history, 210 ; sul- 
tans of Ghazni, of Ghor, 211 ; sultans of 
Delhi, Timur Shah, 241 ; western route 
to India, 282 ; Mughal empire, 353 ; 
Portuguese, Dutch, English in I., East 
India companies, 354 ; Aurangzeb, 389 ; 
decline of Mughal empire, 442 ; Mah- 
ratta power, 443 ; British in India, 
Black, Hole, 443 ; Clive, Hastings, 444 , 
East India Company subordinated to 
government, 442 ; Cornwallis and Wel- 
lington ; Mahratta wars, 541 ; queen of 
England proclaimed sovereign of India, 
544 ; Afghan wars, 546, 547 ; Sepoy re- 
bellion, 546 ; government transferred to 
crown, 544 ; famine, 547. 

India bill, 535. 

Indians of America ; rapid disappearance 
from West Indies, 284 ; John Smith cap- 
tured by, 291 ; intercourse with Plym- 
outh colony, 295 ; Pequot war, 297 ; 
Champlain among, 299 ; John Eliot 
among, 357 ; Hurons massacred by Iro- 



quois, 357; King Philip's war, 359: 
Penn's treaty, 360, King William's war 
361 , Queen Anne's war, Deerneld de- 
stroyed, 363 ; Frencn among the Hurons, 
wars with Iroquois, 364 ; war in Caro- 
lina, and New England, 417 ; old French 
and Indian war, 420 ; conspiracy of l ou- 
tiac, 423; Wyoming massacre, 430; In- 
dian war, 547; Seminole war, 552, 553. 

Indo-European family, Introduction, x., 
85, 86. 

Ine, king of Wessex, 180. 

Inge Baardsen, k. of Norway, 238. 

Ingebord, 226, 235, 238. 

Ingjald Ill-raada, k. of Sweden, 208. 

Ingaevones, 163. 

Inkermann, battle of, 500. 

Innocent III., pope, originates thfe 4th 
crusade, 216 ; obtains Mathilda's estates 
from Otho IV., 223 ; contest with John 
of England, 233 , IV, 225. 

Inquisition, establishment of, by Gregory 
IX., 227 ; by Paul III., 327 ; in Spain, 
330. 

Interim of Augsburg, 305. 

International postal congress, 521. 

Interregnum in the Holy Roman Empire, 
225 ; in England, 384. 

Intibili, battle of, 116. 

Inverlochy, battle of, 348 

Investiture strife, 200, 201. 

Ionian Islands, retained by Venice, 326 ; 
occupied by French, ceded to France, 
459; Republic of the Seven I. I. 461; 
forms a part of the Illyrian provinces, 
472 ; protectorate over, given to Eng- 
land, 483 ; ceded to Greece, 505, 544. 

lonians in Greece, 43 ; colonize Asia Mi. 
nor, 49 ; subdued by Croesus, 21 ; revolt 
from Persia, 28. 

Ipsus, battle of, 77. 

Iran, plateau of, 12; subjugated by Tiglath- 
Pileser II., 14; inhabited by Bactrians, 
Medes, Persians, 24 ; attacked by Assyr- 
ians, 25; conquered by Cyrus, 26; sul- 
tanate of, 210. 

Ireland, ancient, geography, religion, and 
civilization, 38 ; mythical history, 38, 
39 ; Norwegians take Dublin, 209 ; con- 
quered by Henry II., 232 ; English Pale, 
270 ; statute of Drogheda, 333 ; rebellion 
of Tyrone, 339 ; government of Went- 
worth (Strafford), 344 ; Ulster rebellion, 
346, 348 ; Cromwell in Ireland, storm of 
Drogheda, 375 ; war for James II., 386 ; 
battle of the Boyne, 387 ; treaty of 
Limerick, ib. ; Irish catholic laws, 433 , 
United Irishmen, 536 ; union with Great 
Britain, ib. ; Irish reform act, 540 ; fam- 
ine of 1846-47, 543 ; uprising under 
O'Brien, ib. ; habeas corpus act suspend- 
ed, 544 ; disestablishment of the Irish 
(Episcopal) church, 545; land league, 
ib. ; coercion act, land act, 546. 

Irene, 210. 

Ireton, 376. 

Iroquois, war with Hurons and Canada, 
364. See Indians of America. 

Isaac, 7. 

Isaac Angelus, Grecian emp. , 216. 

Isabeau of Bavaria, 259 

Isabella heiress of Castile 276 328. 



626 



Index, 



Isabella II , q. of Spain, claims of ,490, 512. 

Isagoras, 55. 

Isdigerd I., k. of Persia, 189 ; II., 189 ; III. , 
192, 193. 

Isis, Egyptian goddess, 3. 

Islam, 182. 

Isle of Sable, 290. 

Ismail, 413. 

Israel, a separate kingdom, 9 ; contest over 
idolatry, ib. ; tributary to Assyrians, 10 ; 
destroyed by Sargon, 10, 14. 

Issus, battle of, 74. 

Istsevones, 163. 

Istar, Phoenician goddess, 13, 14, 16. 

Isthmian festival, 42. 

Italia, federal republic of, 129. 

Italy, geographical survey of, 81 ; ethno- 
graphical sketch, 85 ; ancient history, 
see Rome ; Odovaker, ruler, 173 ; East 
Goths, Theodoric, 174 ; Langobards in 
Lombardy, papacy, 175 ; Charles the 
Great, king of Italy, 184 ; Carolingians in 
Italy, 193 ; Berengar of Ivrea,195; Otto, 
II. III., in Italy, 197 ; Crescentius, ib. ; 
Normans in Italy, 199 ; Frederic Barba- 
rossaand the Lombard cities, Guelfs and 
Ghibelins, 221 ; peace of Constance, 222; 
Frederic II., in Sicily, 224,225; Naples 
conquered by Charles VIII. of Prance, 
262; league of Cambray, 300; holy 
league, 300, 318 ; campaigns of Napoleon 
in Italy, 458 ; Cisalpine and Ligurian 
and Roman republics founded, 459 ; Par- 
thenopaean republic founded, 460 ; abol- 
ished, 461 ; Roman republic abolished, 
461 ; Napoleon in Italy, 46.2 ; Cisalpine 
and Ligurian republics recognized, 463 ; 
Napoleon president of Italian (Cisalpine) 
republic, 464; Napoleon king of Italy, 
Ligurian republic incorporated with 
France, 467 ; Italy restored to its condi- 
tion before 1789, 483 ; absolutism, 488 ; 
uprisings suppressed by Austrians, 490 ; 
Austro-Sardinian war, 494 ; liberation of 
Italy, Garibaldi, 502 ; Victor Emmanuel 
king of Italy, 503 : war with Austria, 
Venice acquired, 510 ; recognized as sixth 
great power, 511 ; Rome the capital, 520 ; 
dissolution of monasteries, 520 ; electo- 
ral reform act, 526. See, also, Florence, 
Genoa, Naples, Papal States, Sardinia, 
Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. 

Ithome, 51. 

Iturbide, emp. of Mexico, 488. 

Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, 374. 

Ivan III., the Great, of Russia, 277. 

Ivan IV. (or VI.), 411. 

Ivar Vidfadme, k. of Skaania, 208. 

lvry, battle of, 324. 

Jackson, Andrew, pres. of U. S., 552. 

Jackson, Stonewall, 558. 

Jacob, his sons, 8. 

Jacobins, 451 ; club closed, 456. 

Jacobite rebellions, I., 437 : II., 438. 

Jacqueline, of Holland, her inheritance 

goes to Burgundy, 259. 
Jacquerie in France, 258. 
Jaffa stormed by Bonaparte, 460. 
Jagello, house of, 277, 352. 
Jahandar Shah, emp. of India, 442. 
Jahangir, emp. of India, 354. 



Jail delivery at Paris, 452. 

Jamaica, discovery of, 283 ; taken by Penn 
and Venables, 377 ; insurrection, 544. 

James Bay discovered, 300. 

James, e. of Douglas, 268. 

James I., k. of England (VI. of Scotland), 
reign in England, 339 ; II., reign, 383 ; 
flight, 384 ; deposition, 385 ; takes refuge 
with Louis XIV., 3.0; death, 391. See 
duke of York. 

James I., k. of Scotland, murdered, 271 ; 
II., 272 ; IV., invaded England, 333 ; de- 
feat and death, 334; VI., of Scotland, 
abdication of Mary in favor of, 338. See 
James I. of England. 

James Edward, the old pretender, 389, 
435. 

Jamestown, foundation of, 291. 

Janizaries, 353 ; massacre of, 489. 

Jankau, battle of, 315. 

Japan, Buddhism in, 23 ; geography, relig- 
ion, 32; chronology, 3c5 ; early rulers, 
33 ; conversion of native names into Chi- 
nese, 33, n. 2 ; origin, 33 ; development 
of dual gov., mikado superseded by 
shogun, 212 ; war of Gen and Hei, 242 ; 
Hojo supremacy, repulse of the Mongols, 
war of the Chrysanthemums, develop- 
ment of feudalism, 243 ; Ashikaga sho- 
guns, dynastic wars, J. in the time of. 
Columbus, 278 ; domination of Nobu- 
nagaandHideyoshi, 355; Tokugawa sho- 
guns, 356 ; extirpation of Christianity, 
357 ; later Tokugawas, 445 ; Perry's 
treaty, 563 : restoration of the mikado, 
abolition of feudalism, ib.; assimilation 
to western civilization, 564. 

Jason, 46. 

Jassy, peace of, 413. 

Jay, John, in continental congress, 426 ; 
chief justice, 547. 

Jay's treaty, 535, 548. 

Jeanne d"Arc. See Dare. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 427 ; drafts declaration 
of independence, 427 ; sec. of state, 547 ; 
vice-pres., 548 ; pres., 549. 

Jefferson's embax'go, 550. 

Jeffreys, chief justice, 382 ; " bloody as- 
sizes," 383; death, 384. 

Jemmapes, battle of, 453. 

Jena, battle of, 469. 

Jenghiz Khan, leader of the Mongols, 240; 
conquered China, 242. 

Jeremiah, 11. 

Jersey, east and west, 359. 

Jerusalem conquered by Shisak, 5 ; names, 
7 ; captured by David, 9 ; taken by Is- 
raelites, 10 ; besieged in vain by Assyr- 
ians, 10 ; captured by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and destroyed, 11, 16 ; destroyed by Ti- 
tus, 12, 152 : storm of, 214 ; kingdom of, 
214 ; finally lost, 217. 

Jesuits, order of, founded, 304; banished 
from Spain and Portugal, 415 ; abol- 
ished, 416 ; expelled from France in 
1672. 

Jews, geography, chronology, 7 ; settled in 
Egypt, exodus, 8; government, ib.; di- 
vision into Israel and Judah, 9; carried 
to Assyria, 10; to Babylon, 11; sen'' 
back by Cyrus, 11, 27 ; subject to Per- 
sians, etc., 11 ; revolt under the Macca 



Index, 



627 



bees, 11, 78 ; subdued by Rome, 11 ; 
revolt, fall of Jerusalem, 12 ; dispersal, 
ib. ; accused of firing Rome, 151 ; perse- 
cution, 152 ; revolt, 153 ; expelled from 
England, 264; admitted to parliament, 
544. 

Jimmu Tenno, mikado of Japan, 33. 

Joachim II., elector of Brandenburg, 401. 

Joanna, heiress of Castile, 301, 328. 

Joanna, heiress of Navarre, 254. 

Joannes, the usurper, 161. 

Joannes Scotus Erigena, 201. 

Jobst, of Moravia, 251. 

John, archduke of Austria, administrator 
of the German empire, 471, 493. 

John, don, of Austria, Lepanto, 326 ; in 
the Netherlands, 330, 331 ; popish plot 
attributed to, 381. 

John, k. of Bohemia, 247 ; death, 257. 

John, k. of England, Lackland, reign, 233. 

John II., le Bon, k. of France, reign, 258. 

John of Brienne, " king of Jerusalem," 
216. 

John of Gaunt, 269. 

John de Montfort, 257. 

John of Procida, 226. 

John the Fearless, d. of Burgundy, 259. 

John XXIII., pope, 251. 

John IV., k. of Portugal, 332 ; VI., 488. 

John III., k. of Sweden, 362. 

John Casimir, k. of Poland, 352, 374. 

John Frederic, el. of Saxony, 305. 

John George, el. of Saxony, 312, 401. 

John Parricida, 245. 

John Sobieski, k. of Poland, 374. 

John Zimisces, Grecian emp., 210. 

Johnson, Andrew, 558, 559. 

Johnson, Sir William, 421, 423. 

Johnston, Joe, gen., 558. 

Joint committee of the two kingdoms, 
348. 

Jones, John Paul, 430. 

Jonson, Ben, 339. 

Joseph, 8. 

Joseph I., emp. of the Holy Roman Em- 
pire, 390 ; reign, 392 ; death, 393, 397 ; 
II., co-regent, 406; reign, 407; plan of 
an exchange of territory, 408. 

Joseph, k. of Naples. See Bonaparte, Jo- 
seph. 

Joseph I., k. of Portugal, reign, 415. 

Joseph I., k. of Spain. See Bonaparte, Jo- 
seph. 

Joshua, 8. 

Joubert, 461. 

Jourdan, 455, 457, 458, 460, 479. 

Jovianus, Roman emp., 160; peace with 
Persia, 188. 

Juan de la Fuca strait, 290. 

Juarez, 503, 504. 

Juba, k. of Numidia, 141, 142. 

Judaea, attacked by Shisak, 5; geograph- 
ical position, 7 ; dependent kingdom un- 
der Herod, 11 ; part of Roman province 
of Syria, 11 ; Roman province, 150. 

Judah, kingdom of, geography, 7 ; founda- 
tion, 9 ; idolatry in, 10 ; allied with 
Egyptians, ib. ; tributary to the Assyri- 
ans, 10, 14 ; subject to Babylonians, 11 ; 
to the Egyptians, ib.; ravaged by Scvth- 
ians, ib. 

Judges among the Jews 8. 



Jugurthan war, 126, 127. 

Julia, the elder and younger, 148. 

Julian, count, 183, n. 

Julian emperors, 147. 

Julianus, Roman emp., 160 ; invaded Per- 
sia, 188. 

Jiilich-Cleves succession, quarrel begun, 
3U8 ; ended, 372. 

Julius II., pope, 327. 

July revolution at Paris, 489, 529; its re- 
sults, 490. 

Junius, 440. 

Juno, 84. 

Junonia, colony of, established, 125. 

Junot, duke of Abrantes, 470, 471. 

Junto, 435. 

Jupiter, 84 ; Ammon, his temple in Africa, 
27, 74 ; Capitolinus, temple of, 82. 

Jury, grand, 232. 

Jury trial, its Norman origin, 204. 

Jus auxilii, intercessionis, 96 ; reformandi, 
306, 317. 

Justinian I., Grecian emp., victories in 
Italy and Africa, 174 ; war with Persia, 
190 ; reign, 210. 

Jutes, 176. 

Juvenum, foundation of, 167. 

Kaempfer in Japan, 445. 

Kagoshima, bombardment of, 563. 

Kahror, battle of, 24. 

Kaiserslautern, battle of, 455, 456. 

Kalb, de, 430. 

Kaled, expedition of, 192. 

Kalish, alliance of, 475. 

Kamakura, 242, 243. 

Kameel, sultan, 217. 

Kandahar, 442. 

Kanishka, Scythian k. in India, 24. 

Kansas admitted to the Union, 556. 

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 555. 

Kapolna, battle of, 495. 

Kara, Mustapha, 372. 

Karl Martel, 183, 184. 

Karlmann, brother of Charles the Great, 

184. 
Karlmann, k. of Aquitaine, 201. 
Karlsefne, Thorfinn, 281. 
Kars, storm of, 489, 501, 523. 
Kashgar, rebellion of Yakub Begin, 562; 

capture of, ib. 
Katzbach, battle, 477. 
Kaunitz, prince, 403. 
Kay, battle of, 405. 
Keiki, the last shogun, 563. 
Kellermann, 452. 
Kelso, battle of, 348. 
Kenmure, execution of, 437. 
Kentucky admitted to the Union, 548. 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 

1798-1799, 549. 
Kepler, 306. 

Kerman, sultanate of, 210. 
Kertk, Louis, Thomas, and David, 299. 
Khafra, k. of Egypt, 4. 
Khanates, 241. 

Khazars, war with Persia, 189, 190. 
Khorsabad, 12. 
Khufu, k. of Egypt, 4. 
Khusru in India, 211. 
Kieff , grand prince of, 276. 
Kieft, gov. of New Netherlands 357. 



628 



Index. 



Kiel, peace of, 479. 
Kiew. See Kieff . 
Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconlum, 214. 

Kilkenny, statute, 269. 

Killiecrankie, battle of, 386. 

Kilsyth, battle of, 348. 

Kimbolton, lord, 346. 

Kin dynasty, in China, fall of, 242. 

King George's war, 419 ; Philip's war, 359 ; 
William's war, 361. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 431. 

Kinsale captured, 387. 

Kioto, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the mikado, 
213, 242 ; false mikado at, 278 ; capital 
transferred to Tokio, 563. 

Kirke, 386 ; appointed gov. of Mass., 361 ; 
Kirke's lambs, 383 ; raises siege of Lon- 
donderry, 386. 

Klapka, 495,496. 

Kleber, 463. 

Klissow, battle of, 395. 

Knighthood, religious orders of, 217 ; Span- 
ish orders, 240, 328. 

Knights at Rome, 3 centuries, 88 ; number 
doubled, 89 ; in the army, 91 ; farm the 
taxes, 123 ; change in nature, 125 ; de- 
prived of jury service, 132 ; which is par- 
tially restored, 133. 

Knights in Athens, 53. 

Kniprode, Winrich von, 277. 

Knowles in Boston, 419. 

Knox, Henry, U. S. sec. of war, 547. 

Knox, John, 304, 338. 

Knut the Great, k. of England and Den- 
mark, visit to Rome, 198 ; reign in Eng- 
land, 205, 206 ; in Denmark, 207. 

Knut, St., k. of Denmark, 208 ; VI., 235. 

Kobad I., k. of Persia, first reign, 189 ; 
second reign, 190 ; II., 192. 

Kblhapur, 443. 

Kollin, battle of, 404. 

Kong, prince, 502. 

Koniggriitz, battle of, 509. 

Konigsberg, treaty of, 373, 470. 

Konigsmark, 315, 416. 

Koran, the, 182. 

Kosciuszko, 413, 414. 

Kossuth, 494, 495, 496. 

Kotzebue, murder of, 487. 

Krasnoy, battle of, 475. 

Kublai Khan in China, 242. 

Kuldja, disputed between China and Rus- 
sia, 562. 

Kulm, battle at, 477. 

Kulturkampf in Italy, Switzerland, and 
Prussia, 520 ; in Prussia, France, Bel- 
gium, 525 ; approaching end, 526. 

Kunersdorf , battle of, 405. 

Kurile islands given to Japan by Russia, 
32, n. 3. 

Kusunoki-Masashig^, 243. 

Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi, 241. 

Kutschouc Kainardji, peace of, 412. 

Kutusoff , 467, 475. 

Labiau, treaty of, 373. 
Labienus, 139, 142, 143. 
Laborers, statute of, 268. 
Labrador, discovery of the coast of, 284. 
Labyrinth, in Egypt, 4, 6 ; in Crete, 18. 
Lacedemonians, in Sparta, 50. See Greece 
and Sparta. 



Uaconia, name first given to Maine, 295. 
Lade, battle of, 28. 

Ladislaus II., k. of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia, 278. 
Ladislaus Postumus, k. of Hungary, 278. 
Lady of England, 231. 
Lady of the Mercians, 204. 
Laets, 177. 
Lafayette, in America, 428 ; commander of 

national guard, 450 ; proscribed, 452 ; a 

liberal, 527 ; commander of national 

guard, 529. 
La Fere-Champenoise, battle of, 481. 
Lafitte, ministry of, 529. 
La Fontaine, 371. 
Lagidae. See Ptolemies. 
La Hogue, battle of, 370, 387. 
Lahore, Muhammedan dynasty at, 211. 
Lake Erie, battle of, 551 ; George, battle of, 

421. 
Lally, 444. 
Lamachus, 67. 
Lamberg, count, 494. 
Lamian war, 79. 
Lamoriciere, 503, 527. 
Lancaster, house of, 270. 
Lancaster Sound, 299. 
Land act,. 545, 546. 
Land league in Ireland, 545. 
Landshut, battle of, 405, 471- 
Landwehr,-sturm, established, 476. 
Lanfranc, archb. of Canterbury, 229. 
Langensalza, 510. 
Langobards, location, 170 ; found kingdom 

in Italy, 175 ; crushed by Charles the 

Great, 184. 
Langside, battle of, 338. 
Langton, Stephen, 233, 234. 
Lansdowne Hill, battle of, 347. 
Laon, capital of German kingdom of the 

Franks, 202 ; battle of, 481. 
Laotsze, Chinese philosopher, 31. 
La Plata, discovery of, 286; a free state, 

488. 
La Rochelle, granted to Huguenots, 221; 

. siege of, 325. 
La Rothiere, battle of, 480. 
La Salle, discoveries of, 364, 365. 
Lascaris, Theodore, 216. 
Las Casas, Bartholome' de, 285. 
La Soledad, treaty of, 503. 
Laswari, battle of, 541. 
Lateran council, 20l. 
Lateranus, L. Sextus, 101. 
Latham house, siege of, 348. 
Latimer, 338. 
Latin empire, 216, 240. 
Latin league, Rome's hegemony over, 90 i 

dissolution of, 104. 
Latin war, great, 104. 
Laud, William, 344, 345 ; execution, 348. 
Lauderdale, 380, 381. 
Laudon, 405, 413. 
Laudonniere, Rene, 288. 
Launay, de, murder of, 449. 
Lautrec, invaded Naples, 303. 
Laval, Francois de, 364. 
Law's Mississippi scheme, 445. 
Lawrence, lord, viceroy in India, 546. 
Law of Edward the Confessor, 230. ' 
Laws of Ine, of Off a 180 ; of the twelva 

tables, 98. 



Index. 



629 



Lay bach, congress at, 487. 

Lazica, ceded to Rome, 190 ; invaded by 

Hormisdas, 191 ; Heraclius in, 192. 
League in France, 322. See Holy league. 
League of the German princes, 408. 
League of the public weal, 260. 
Lear (Leir), 37. 
Leboeuf , marshal, 513, 514. 
Le Bourget, battle of, 519. 
Lechfeld, battle of, 196. 
Lee, Charles, 430. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 427. 
Lee, Robert E., in command of Confederate 

army, 557; Gettysburg, 558; surrender, 

558. 
Lefort, in Switzerland, 374. 
" Legacy of Igeyasu," 356. 
Leges Corneliae, 132 ; duodecim tabularum, 

98 ; Liciniae, 101 ; Publiliae, 102 ; Valeriae 

Horatiaa, 98. 
Legion, in the Servian constitution, 92 ; 

change in the 4th cent., b. c, 103; 

change under Marius, 128. 
Legion of honor, created, 464. 
Legislative assembly in France, 447, 451. 
Legitimitists, in France, 530. 
Legnano, battle of, 222. 
Leipzig, battle of, 312 ; second battle, 314 ; 

battle of the nations, 478 ; supreme court 

in, 525 ; university founded, 251. 
Le Mans, battle of, 519. 
Lenthall, 345, 377. 
Lenzen, battle of, 194. 
Leo the Great, pope, 173 ; X., 327 ; XIII., 

524. 
Leo the Isaurian, Grecian emp., 210. 
Leoben, peace of, 458. 
Leofric, e. of Mercia, 206. 
Leon, name changed from Asturia, 209 ; 

finally united with Castile, 240. 
Leonidas, 58. 
Leopold, IV. (V.) d. of Austria, receives 

Bavaria, 219 ; V. detains Richard Cceur 

de Lion, 216. 
Leopold, archd. of Austria, defeated by the 

Swiss, 247 ; III., Sempach, 250. 
Leopold I., k. of the Belgians, 490. 
Leopold of Dessau, 392, 397, 402. 
Leopold I., emp of the H. R.E. ; reign of, 

371, 372 ; Spanish claimant, 390 ; death, 

392; II., 408, 416, 451. 
Leotychidas. 60. 
Lepanto, battle of, 326, 330. 
Lepidus, M. .Emilius, 133, 141. 
Leptis, 17, 19. 
Lerma, d. of, 331. 
Lesbos, 41, 66. 
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 512. 
Lestocq, in Russia, 411. 
Leucopetra, battle of, 80, 122 
Leuctra, battle of, 70. 
Leuthen, battle of, 404. 
Leverett, John, gov., of Mass. 360. 
Levites, 8. 

Lewes, battle of, 234. 
Lex agraria, 128. See agrarian laws ; an- 

nalis, 120 ; Aurelia, 133 ; Canuleia de 

conubio, 99 ; de civitate sociis danda, 

128 ; Clodia, 138 ; de falso, 122, 132 ; Ga- 

binia, 134 ; Hortensia, 107 ; judiciaria, 

125, 128 ; Julia de agro campano, 137 ; 

Julia, 149 ; Ma.-u.ia 107 ; de maiestate 
38 



149; Manilia, 135; Papia Poppsea, 149; 
Pedia, 145 ; Plautia-Papiria, 129 ; Poetilia, 
103 ; Pompeia, 129 ; de proscribendis, 
132, provocatio, 91, 93, 94, 98, 125 ; Pub- 
lilia, 97 ; regia, 374 ; de sicariis, 122, 132 ; 
Trebonia, 140 ; Valeria de provocatione, 
93 ; de vi et ambitu, 140. 

Lexington, battle of, 426. 

Liberty of conscience, declarations of, 
384. 

Licensing act, expiration of, 388. 

Licinian laws passed, 101 ; reenacted, 124. 

Licinius appointed Augustus, 159* 

Liegnitz, battle of, 405. 

Ligny, battle of, 484. 

Ligue du bien publique, 260. 

Ligurian republic, founded, 459 ; incorpo* 
rated with France, 467. 

Libybseum, siege of, 111. 

Lima, occupation of, 287. 

Limerick, siege of, 387 ; treaty of, 387. 

Lincoln, Abraham, pres. of the United 
States, 556 ; reelection, 558 ; assassina- 
tion, 559. 

Lincoln, gen. 430. 

Lincoln, battle of, 231. 

Lindolf, d. of Swabia, 195. 

Lisbon, earthquake of, 415. 

Lissa, battle of, 510. 

Lithuanians, 169. 

t; Little " parliament. See Barebones. 

Liudolf, d. of Swabia, 195. 

Liutprand, 175. 

Liverpool ministrv, 537. 

Livia, 148, 149. 

Livius, T.,81. 

Livius Salinator, 117. 

Livonia, 373. 

Lobositz, battle of, 404. 

Locke, John, 358, 389. 

Locomotive invented, 486. 

Lodbrog, Ragnar, 208. 

Lode, battle at, 28. 

Lodi, storming of the bridge at, 458. 

Lollards, 269. 

Lombard league, 219, 221, 224. 

Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 482, 494, 502. 

Lombards. See Langobards, 175. 

Lombardy. See Langobards, Italy, Pied- 
mont, Sardinia. 

London, founded, 176 ; captured by Danes, 
203 ; great fire, plague, 379 ; first indus- 
trial exhibition, 498 ; peace conference, 
506 ; second industrial exhibition, 544 ; 
financial panic in, ib. 

London Company, 291 ; conference, 489, 
511 ; protocol, 505 ; treaty of, 498. 

Londonderry, siege of, 386. 

Long Island, battle of, 428. 

Longjumeau, neace of, 321. 

Longland, William. 268. 

Long parliament, 345-351, 375-378 •, reca- 
pitulation, 378, n. 

Longobards. See Langobards. 

Loo-Choo islands, 564. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 558. 

'' Loose coat field,"' 274. 

Loris-Melikoff, 523, 525. 

Lorraine, German part of Ludwig-s share 
in the treaty of Verdun, 187, 193 ; be- 
comes a duchy, 194; vacillates between 
East and West Franks 194 ; upper and 



630 



Index. 



lower Lorraine, 199 : occupied by France, 
369 ; exchanged to Stanislaus Lesczin- 
ski for Tuscany, 398 ; house of, 399, 416 ; 
ceded to the German empire, 519. 

Lorraine, d. of, partially reinstated, 366, 
368 ; transfer of the duchy, 398. 

Lothar, d. of Saxony, war with Henry V., 
201. 

Lothar, emp. 186 ; treaty of Verdun, 187. 

Lothar, emp. of the H. R. E., 218. 

Lothar, k. of West Franks, 202. 

Louis I., k. of Bavaria, 492 ; II., 514. 

Louis of CondS, 321. 

Louis, emp. See Ludwig. 

Louis VI., k. of France, 226. [For the Car- 
olingian kings of this name, see Lud- 
wig k. of France, I.-V.] VII., crusade, 
215 ; reign, 226 ; in England, 232 ; VIII., 
227 ; as prince, in England, 233 ; IX., 
St. Louis, reign, 227; arbitration , 234; 
crusades, 217; X., Le Hutin, 255; XL, 
of France, 260; XII., 318; XIII., 325 ; 
XIV., 366-371 ; Spanish succession, 390 ; 
XV., 445 ; XVI., 446 ; flight and return, 
451; trial and execution, 453 ; (XVII.,) 
of France proclaimed, 453 ; death, 457 ; 
XVIII., first return, 481 : flight, 483 ; 
return, 484, 526 ; death, 527. 

Louis the Great, k. of Poland and Hun- 
gary, 277. 

Louis Napoleon, first attempt to be pro- 
claimed emperor, 529 ; second, 530 ; pres- 
ident of the republic, 494, 531 ; coup 
d' etat, 498, 531 ; as emperor, see Napo- 
leon III. 

Louis Napoleon, pr. of France, imperial 
birth, 531 ; death, 534. 

Louis Philippe I., accession, 489, 529 ; ab- 
dication, 530 ; death. 531. 

Louisa, q. of Prussia, 469. 

Louisburg, siege, 419, 421. 

Louise la Querouaille, 380. 

Louise of Savoy, 303. 

Louisiana, discovered by La Salle and set- 
tled by French, English attempt to colo- 
nize fails, 362, 365 ; ceded to Spain, 423, 
439 ; restored to France, 463 ; bought by 
the United States, 463, 549 ; admitted to 
the Union, 551. 

Louvois, 366, 370. 

Lowen, battle of, 193. 

Lowenbund, 250. 

Lowestoft, battle of, 379. 

Loyal association, 388. 

Loyola, Ignatius, 304. 

Lubeck, free city, 222 ; conquered by Knut 
VI., 235 ; capital of the Hanseatic league, 
249 ; peace of, 310. 

Lubecki, 490. 

Lucanians, 83 ; wars with Rome, 106, 107. 

Lucius, k. of Britain, 36, 38. 

Lucka, battle of, 245. 

Lucknow, relief of, 546. 

Lucretia, 89. 

Lucullus, L., 131, 134, 135. 

Lud, k. of Britain, 37. 

Luddites, 537. 

Ludwig I., the Pious, le Debonnaire, emp., 
186 ; II., 193 ; of Bavaria, 247. 

Ludwig, the German, k. of the East Franks, 
share at the treaty of Verdun, 187 ; reign, 
193; the Child. 194 



Ludwig II., the Stammerer, k. of the West 
Franks ; 201 [Ludwig the Pious, emp., 
is also Ludwig I., k. of the West Franks] ; 
III., 201 ; IV., d 1 Outre Mer, 202 ; V., the 
Faineant (for kings of France, see Louis), 
202. 

Ludwigslied, 201. 

Lugenfeld, 186. 

Lumley's Inlet, 290. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 551. 

Luneville, peace of, 462. 

Luperci, 85. 

Luque, Hernando de, 286. 

Lusatia (Lausitz), origin, 194 ; lower Lu- 
satia united with Bohemia, 248 ; mort- 
gaged to Saxony, 310 ; ceded to Saxony. 
314. 

Lusitanians, 118 ; war with Rome, 123. 

Lustrum, 92. 

Lutetia Parisiorum, 139. 

Luther, Martin, 301. 

Luther am Barenberge, battle of, 310. 

Liitzen, battle of (Gustavus Adolphus), 
312; (Napoleon), 476. 

Luxembourg, marshal, 370. 

Luxemburg, house of, 245, 248 ; Hungary 
under, 277. 

Luxemburg question, 511, 532. 

Luynes, d. of, 325. 

Luzzara, battle of, 392. 

Lycia conquered by Harpagus, 26 ; Roman 
province, 150. 

Lycos, battle on the, 135. 

Lycurgus, constitution of, 50. 

Lydia, geography, 20 ; religion , chronology, 
21; under Attyadae, Heraclidse, Mermna- 
das, 21 ; conquers Phrygia, 21 ; war with 
Cvaxares, 21, 25 ; conquered by Cyrus, 
22 ; 26. 

Lyons, council of, 225 ; partially destroyed, 
154. 

Lysander, 68, 69, 70. 

Lysimachus, 76. 

Lytton, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 

Macao, Portuguese at, 354. 

Macartney, e., embassy of, 445. 

Macaulay, T. B., sec. of war, 540 ; in In- 
dia, 542 ; paymaster gen., 543. 

Maccabaeus, Judas, 11. 

Macchiavelli, 328. 

McClellan, gen., 557. 

Macdonald, 460, 461, 474, 477, 480. 

Macedonia, 41 ; rise in power under Philip, 
71; Macedonian supremacy, 73; Alexan- 
der, 73-76 ; under descendants of Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, 78 : wars with Rome. 
116, 118, 120, 121 : fall of the monarchy, 
120 ; Roman province, 78, 122. 

Macedonian line, Greek emperors, 210. 

Maciejowice, battle of, 414. 

Mack, gen., 460, 467. 

Mackay, gen., 386. 

MacMahon, in Italy, 502 ; in Franco-Prus. 
sian war, 514, 516 ; siege of Paris (com 
mune), 532 ; pres., 533 ; resigned, 534. 

Macon's No. 2 act, 550. 

Macrinus, Roman emp., 30, 155. 

Macro, 150. 

Madagascar, French claims upon! 535- 

Madeira, discovery of, 276, 279. 

Madison, James, 549, 550. 



Index. 



631 



Madoc, rebellion of, 264. 

Madras, in India, 22 ; founded, 354 ; cap- 
tured and restored, 443. 

Madrid, Charles in, 392 ; Napoleon at, 471 ; 
taken by Wellington, 474 ; by the 
French, 527 ; peace of, 803. 

Maecenas, 147. 

Mselius, Sp. 99. 

Magadha, empire of, 23. 

Magalhges, F., 280. 

Magdeburg, bishopric of, 196 ; placed un- 
der ban, 305 ; stormed by Tilly, 311. 

Magellan. See Magelhaes. 

Magellan, straits of, 280, 286. 

Magenta, battle of, 502. 

Magians, 25. 

Magister equitum, 94. 

Magna Charta, 233, 266, 418. 

Magnano, battle of, 460. 

Magnesia, battle of, 78, 119. 

Magnetic needle, 279. 

Magnus the Good, k. of Norway, reign in 
Denmark, 207; in Norway, 209; II., 
209; III., Barfod, 209, 238; IV., the 
Blind, k. of Norway, 238; V., 238; VI., 
Lagaboeter, 238. 

Magnus, d. of Saxony, 199. 

Magnus, k. of Sweden, 237, 238 ; Smek, k. 
of Sweden, 236. 237. 

Mago, 117. 

Magyars. See Hungary. 

Maha-bharata, Hindu epic, 23. 

Mahmud, sultan of Ghazni, 211. 

Mahmud II.-, sultan of Turkey, 489. 

Mahratta wars, 444, 541. 

Mahrattas, rise of, 38^,443,444; conquered 
by the British, 541. 

Maid of Norway. See Margaret. 

Maid of Orleans. See Dare. 

" Main » plot, 340. 

Maine (in America), Pring's voyage, 290 ; 
Popham colony, 293 ; granted to Gorges 
and Mason, 295, 297 ; annexed to Mass., 
358 ; restored to heirs of Gorges, ib. ; 
bought by Mass., 359; admitted to the 
Union, 552. 

Maine (in France), 231. 

Mainots, 488. 

Maintenon, Madame de,369, 371. 

Mainz, first archbishop of, 184; elector, 
248 ; electoral archchancellor, 464. 

Majestatsbrief, 308. 

Majorianus, Roman emp., 162. 

Malacca taken by the Dutch, 353. 

Malaga, battle of, 434. 

Malakoff, storm of the 501. 

Malcolm, k. of Scots, 205, 230. 

Maldon, battle of, 205. 

Malmo, truce of, 496. 

Malmutius Dunwall, k. of Britain, 37. 

Malplaquet, battle of, 392, 435. 

Malta, Phoenicians settle upon, 17 ; given 
to knights of St. John, 217 ; surrendered 
to Napoleon, 460; to be restored to the 
order, 464 ; not surrendered, 465 ; given 
to England, 483. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 557. 

Mamelukes, overthrow the Ayoubites, 217 ; 
defeated by Napoleon, 460. 

Mamertines, 109. 

Mamun, 186, 210. 

Manchester massacre, 538. 



Manchester and Liverpool railway, 539 

Mandate, 457. 

Manes. See Mani. 

Manetho, hist, of Egypt, 3, 4, n 3. 

Manfred, 225. 

Manhattan Island, purchased, 298. 

Mani, Manicheism, 188. 

Manlius, Capitolinus, M., 100 ; Imperiosus. 

I., 104 ; Torquatus, T., 103. 
Mansfield, count, 309, 310. 
Mansfield, lord, 440. 

Manteuffel, gen., governor of Schleswig, 

507, 508 ; Franco-Prussian war, 518, 519. 

Manteuffel, minister, 494; at Olmiitz, 498 j 

dismissal, 502. 
Mantinea, battle of, 67, 71, 80. 
Mantua, siege of, 458. 
Mantuan war, 311. 
Manu, 23. 

Maori war in New Zealand, 544. 
Marat, member of Cordeliers 451 ; assassi- 
nated, 454. 
Marathon, battle of, 57. 
Marbod, 149, 167. 
Marcel, Etienne, 258. 
Marcellus, M. Claudius, 115-117. 
Marchfeld, battle of, 244.. 
Marcomanni, 154, 167. 
Marcy, William L., 555. 
Mardonius, 56, 60. 
Marengo, battle of, 462. 
Margaret of Austria, negotiated Paix dea 
Dames, 303; q. of Denmark, Norway, 
and Sweden, 237, 238, 276 ; wife of Henry 
VI. of England, 240, 271, 272, 274. 
Margaret, " The Maid of Norway," 238. 
Margaret Maultasch, 247, 249. 
Margaret of Parma, 330 ; c. of Salisbury, 

335. 
Marhattas. See Mahrattas. 
Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I., 481. 
Maria Theresa of Austria, heiress of Charles 
VI., 398 ; wars with Frederic the Great, 
400-406. 
Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 366; 

died, 369. 
Mariana, 295, 296. 

Marie Antoinette, unpopularity, 446 ; exe- 
cution, 455. 
Marienburg, grandmaster at, 218, 277; 

treaty of, 373. 
Marignano, victory of, by Francis I., 319. 
Marion, Francis, 430. 

Marius, C, 82; in Numidia, 127; defeats 
Cimbri and Teutones, 127, 128; social 
war, 129 ; death, 130. 
Marius the younger, 131. 
Marlborough, d. of, sketch of life, 382 ; 
joins William III., 384; in Ireland, 387; 
disgraced, 387 ; in the war of the Spanish 
succession, 391-393, 434; made a duke, 
433; dismissed, 393, 435; reinstated, 
436. 
Marmont, gov. of Illyrian provinces, 47^ 

Marquette discovers the Mississippi, 364. 

Mars, 84, 85. 

Marshal, office of, 195. 

Marshall, John, 549. 

Marshall William, regency of, 234. 

Marsian, or social war, 129. 

Marston Moor battle of 348. 



632 



Index. 



Martignac ministry, 527. 

Martin V., pope, 252. 

Martinique, taken by England, ceded to 
France, 422, 441. 

Martinitz, 309. 

Martinsvogel, the, 250. 

Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 253. 

Mary, the Catholic, q. of England, reign, 
330, 336, 338 ; married Philip of Spain, 
336. 

Mary Stuart, q. of Scotland, married Fran- 
cis II. of France, 321; reign, 338; exe- 
cution, 339. 

Maryland, granted to lord Baltimore, 293 ; 
rebellion of Clay borne and Ingle, 357 ; 
English parliament assumed control, 358 ; 
quo warranto against, 361. 

Masaniello, 327. 

Maserfeld, battle of, 180. 

Masham, Mrs., 434, 435. 

Mason, John, grant of Mariana, 295, 296. 

Mason taken from the Trent, 544, 557. 

Massachusetts Bay colony founded, 295 ; 
separation of general court into two 
houses, 357 ; execution of Quakers, 358 ; 
reassumed government of Maine, 358 ; 
forfeiture of the charter, 360 ; new char- 
ter, 361 ; treaty of peace with the east- 
ern Indians, 418 ; adoption of a constitu- 
tion, 431 ; insurrection in, 432. 

Massagetae, 27. 

Massalia, founded, 19, 141. 

Massasoit, 295. 

Massena, 460, 461, 462, 467, 472 ; masterly 
retreat, 473. 

Massinissa, 116 ; dethroned, 117 ; restored, 
118, 121. 

Match in, 413. 

Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, 200 ; her 
estates accepted bv Lothar from the pope. 
218 ; withheld by Henry VI., 223 ; given 
to the papacy by Otto IV., 223 

Matthias, emp. of the H. R. E., 308. 

Matthias of Thurn, 309. 

Matthias Corvinus, k. of Hungary, 278. 

Maupeou, 446. 

Maupertuis. See Poitiers. 

Maurepas, 447. 

Mauretania, Roman prov., 150. 

Maurice, Greek emp., 191 ; of Nassau, 331; 
d. of Saxony, 305. 

Maxen, surrender of, 405. 

Maxentius, Roman emp., 158, 159. 

Maximianus, 158, 159. 

Maximilian, d. of Bavaria, in thirty years' 
war, 308, 309. 

Maximilian, emp. of Mexico, 504. 

Maximilian I., emp. of the H. R. E., mar- 
ried heiress of Burgundy, 253 ; secures 
succession of Hungary, 278 ; reign, 300 ; 
II., 492, 306. 

Maximinus, 158, 159. 

Maximinus Thrax, Roman emp., 155, 156. 

May laws in Prussia, 521. 

Mayas, 285. 

Mayence. See Mainz. 

Mayenne, d. of, 324. 

Mayflower, 294. 

Mayo, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 

Mayora of the palace, origin of their power, 
182, 183, 184 ; compared with the sho- 
guns in Japan 213 



Mazarin, in thirty years' war, 314 ; agent 
of the pope, 325 ; his administration and 
death, 366. 

Mazdak, 189. 

Mazeppa, 395. 

Meade, gen., 558. 

Mecklenburg, 226, 316. 

Medea, 46. 

Media, revolt under Phraortes, 15 ; geog- 
raphy, 24 ; subject to Assyria, 25 ; re- 
volt suppressed by Sargon, 14 ; revolt 
under Phraortes, 15, 25 ; Median empire, 
25 ; supremacy passed from Media to 
Persia, 26 ; revolt suppressed by Da- 
rius, 27; subject to Parthia, 30; large 
portion ceded to Armenia, 188. 

Median wall, 16. 

Medici, Alexander de', 327 ; Catherine de', 
321 ; Cosimo de', created g. d. of Tus- 
cany, 327 ; Mary de', regency of, 325. 

Medici family in Florence, 263 ; in Flor- 
ence and Tuscany, 32'7 ; extinction, 398. 

Megacles, 51. 

Megalopolis, 71 ; battle of, 73. 

Megara," Doric state, 48 ; ally of Athens, 
62 ; old constitution restored, 63 ; joined 
the Peloponnesians, 65. 

Megiddo, battle of, 6, 11. 

Mehemed Ali, revolt of, 491, 530. 

Meissen, origin, 194 ; given to Conrad of 
Wettin, 218 ; eastern part of Thuringia 
joined to, 225 ; Frederic of Meissen re- 
ceives the electorate of Saxony, 252. 

Melac, 370. 

Melanchthon, 303. 

Melas, 460, 461, 462. 

Melbourne, lord, home sec, 539 ; premier, 
540. ' 

Melkart, Phoenician divinity, 17. 

Meminius, C, 126, 128. 

Memnon, 5. 

Memphis, in Lower Egypt, 2 ; worship of 
Ptah, 2 ; Cambyses in, 27. 

Mena, first k. of Egypt, 3, 4. 

Mendoza, viceroy, 287. 

Menkaura, k. of Egypt, 4. 

Menou, 463. 

Menschikoff, 410, 500. 

Men tana, battle of, 511. 

Mercia, founded, 179 ; supremacy of, 180 ; 
Danes in, 203. 

Mercurius, 84. 

Mercy, 314. 

Mergentheim, 218 ; battle of, 315. 

Meri lake, constructed by Amenemhat 
I., 4. 

Mermnadse, dynasty in Lydia, 21. 

Meroe, kingdom in Ethiopia, 5. 

Merowingians, 35 ; derivation of the name, 
170 ; defeat Syagrius, 173 ; Franks un- 
der, 181 ; superseded by the Caroling* 
ans, 184. 

Merseberg, 195, n. 

Merwan II., last Ommiad caliph, 182. 

Meschish, k. of Gaul, 36. 

Mesopotamia, Roman prov., 153. 

Messalina, 150. 

Messana, 51, 109. 

Messenian wars, I., II., 51 ; III., 62. 

Meta Incognita, 289. 

Metaurus, battle of the, 117. 

Metcalfe, sir Charles, in India, 542. 



Index. 



633 



lletellus, L. Casailius, defeats Hasdrubal 
at Panormus, 111. 

Metellus (Macedonicus), Q. Crecilius, in 
the 4th Macedonian and Achaean war, 
122. 

Metellus (Numanticus), Q. Caecilius, cap- 
tures Numantia, 123 ; defeats Jugurtha, 
126 ; superseded by Marius, 127. 

Metellus ( Pius), Q. Caecilius, war with Ser- 
torius, 133 ; subdues Crete, 134. 

Methuen treaty, 434. 

Metceci, 52. 

Metternich, at the congress of Prague, 476 ; 
of Vienna, 482 ; of Carlsbad, 487 ; head 
of the conservative party, 491 ; driven 
from Vienna, 492. 

Metz, siege of, 306, 516, 518. 

Mexican expedition, 503, 532. 

Mexico conquered by Cortez, 285 ; freed 
from Spanish rule, 488 ; war with the 
United States, 554. 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 328. 

Michigan admitted to the Union, 553. 

Michillimachinac, Jesuit mission, 364. 

Micipsa, 126. 

Midas, k. of Phrygia, 22. 

Middle Kingdom, 32. 

Middlesex, 178. 

Mieczeslav II., leader of the Poles, 198. 

Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 488. 

Mikado. See Japan. 

Milan, captured by Scipio, 35 ; captured by 
Barbarossa and destroyed, 221 ; rebuilt, 
ib. ; under the Visconti and Sforza, 262 ; 
war between Charles V. , and Francis I. , 
concerning, 304, 319 ; Philip invested 
with, ib. ; claims of Louis XII. to, 318 ; 
appanage of Spain, 326 : assigned to the 
emperor, 393 ; Victor Emmanuel in, 562. 

Milan decree, 550. 

Milan, pr. of Servia, 521 ; becomes k., 526. 

Milesians settle at the mouth of the Tigris, 
28 ; in Ireland, 39. 

Miletus, in league with Croesus, 21, 28 ; 
Ionians settle, 49 ; battle of, 67. 

Milhaud, confederation of, 322. 

Military roads in Persia, 28 ; constructed 
in Italy, 82 ; in Britain, 176. 

Millenary petition, 340. 

Millesimo, battle of, 458. 

Milo, S. Annius, 139. 

Miltiades, 28 ; at Marathon, 57. 

Milton, John, 389. 

Minamoto familv, 212, 21?, 242. 

Minden, battle of, 405. 

Mineptah, k. of Egypt, 5. 

Minerva, 84. 

Ming dynasty in China, 242. 

Minnesota admitted to Union, 556. 

Minos, k. of Crete, 18, 46. 

Minotaur, 18. 

Minto, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 

Minucius, M., 114. 

Minuit, Peter, 298. 

Minyae, 43, 46, 48, 49. 

Mir Jafar, 443, 444 ; Kosim, 444. 

Mirabeau, C, 449,451. 

Miramichi Bay, discovery of, 287. 

Miranda, 550. 

Misenum, treaty of, 146. 

Missi regis, 186. 

Missionary Ridge battle of, 558 



Mississippi admitted to the Union, 551. 

Mississippi river, discov. 287,364; possession 
taken for France, 362, 365 ; claimed by 
France, 420 ; navigation free to England 
and France, 422 ; to England and the 
United States, 432. 

Missoloughi, 488. 

Missouri admitted to the Union, 552. 

Missouri compromise, 552. 

Mithra, 25. 

Mithridates, I., founded Parthian empire, 
30; II., k. of Parthia, 30. 

Mithridates VI., k. of Pontus, his power, 
1-9 ; Suila concluded peace with, 131 ; 
alliance of Sertorius with, 133 ; killed 
himself, 136. 

Mithridatic wars , I. , 129 ; II. , 132 ; III. , 134. 

Mobile colony, 365. 

Mocenigo, adm., 416. 

Mockern, battle of, 478. 

Modena, 416, 458. 

Moesia, 148, 153. 

Mohacs, battle of, 303, 372. 

Mohammed, 182. 

Moira, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 

Molai, Jacques de, 255. 

Moldavia, 395, 488. 

Mole", ministry of, 530. 

Moliere, 371. 

Mollwitz, battle of, 401. 

Moloch, 17, 18. 

Moltke, 508, 509, 517. 

Momemphis, battle of, 6. 

Mompeson, impeachment of, 342. 

Monasteries in Ireland, 39 ; suppressed In 
England, 335 ; in Austria, 407 ; in France, 
534 ; in Rome and Papal states, 520. 

Mondovi, battle of, 458. 

Mongols, defeated by the Chinese, 32 ; in- 
vasion of Germany, 240 ; conquest of 
China, 242 ; repulse from Japan, 243 ; 
supremacy in Russia, 277 ; check the Os- 
man power, 278. 

Monk, 376, 377, 378. See Albemarle. 

Monmouth, battle of, 430. 

Monmouth, d. of, 382, 383. 

Monroe doctrine, 552. 

Monroe, James, 550, 551. 

Mons sacer, 96, 98. 

Montague, proceedings against, 342, 387. 

Montaigne, Michael, 324. 

Montcalm, 421, 422. 

Monteagle, lord, 340. 

Montebello, battle of, 502. 

Montecuculi, 368, 372. 

Montenegro, war with the Porte, 521, 522; 
became independent, 524. 

Montereau, 259 ; battle of, 480. 

Monterey, battle of, 554. 

Montesquieu, 448. 

Montezuma, Mexican empire of, 285. 

Montgomery*, general, 427. 

Montiel, battle of, 276. 

MontUhery, battle of, 260. 

Montmartre, storm of, 481. 

Montmirail, battle at, 480. 

Montmorency, 320 ; execution, 326. 

Montpellier, 258. 

Montreal, settled by Maisonneuve, 300 ; sur- 
rendered to English, 422; captured bj 
Montgomery, 427. 

Montrose, marquis of, plots against Argyle 4 



634 



Index. 



346 ; campaign, in Scotland, 348 ; execu- 
tion, 375. 
Monts, sieur de, 290. 
Moors, origin, 183 ; conquer Spain, 183 ; 

caliphate, 209 ; conquered by Almora- 

vides, 209 ; by Almohades, 240 ; conquest 

of Granada, 276. 
Moqui Canon, 287- 
Morabethes, 209, 240. 
More, Sir Thomas, 335. 
Morea {see Greece), conquered by Turks, 

397 ; ravaged, 488. 
Moreau, 458, 460, 462, 465, 477. 
Morgan, 431. 
Morgarten, battle of, 247. 
Morkere, 206, 229. 

Mornington, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. 
Moro, Ludovico, 318. 
Morosini, 416. 
Morse, 487. 
Mortier, 481. 

Mortimer, Edmund, 270 ; Roger, 267, 268. 
Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 272. 
Mortmain, statute of, 266. 
Moscow, national centre of Russia, 277 ; 

burning of, 475. 
Moses, 8. 

Moshaisk, battle of, 475. 
Moslems, 182. 
Mt. Cenis tunnel, 520. 
Mount Desert, 292, 299. 
Mountain, the, in the legislative assembly, 

451, 453. 
Mowbray, conspiracy of, 270. 
Muawwiyah I., caliph, 182. 
Mucius Scaevola, 95. 
Mughal empire, founded, 353 ; end of, 546. 

See, also, India. 
Muhammed II., destroyed eastern empire, 

278. 
Muhammed Ghori, 211, 241 ; Shah, 442 ; 

Tughlak, 241. 
Muhammedanism, in China, 31 ; origin in 

Arabia, 182 : conquests in west, 183 ; in 

Persia 192, 193. 
Miihlberg, battle of, 305. 
Muhldorf, battle of, 247. 
Mukhtar Pasha, 523. 
Mummius, 122. 
Miinchengratz, 491, 509. 
Munda, battle of, 143. 
M'unger, Thomas, 302. 
Munich, 312, 492. 

Municipal corporations reform act, 541. 
Miinnich, 410, 411. 
Munro, major, 444. 
Miinster, anabaptists in, 304 ; negotiations 

for peace at, 315. 
Murad, I., sultan of the Turks, 278; V., 

deposed, 521. 
Murat, 460, 467 ; g. d. of Berg, 468 ; k. of 

Naples, 470 ; driven from Naples, 484 ; 

executed, 485. 
Murray. See Mansfield, lord. 
Murray, earl of, regent, 338. 
Murray, lord George, 438. 
Murten, battle of, 262. 
Musa, 183. 

Muthul, battle of, 126. 
Mutina, founded, 112 ; battle of, 35, 144. 
Mutiny act, 386. 
Mutsu-Hito, 33, 562. 



Mycale, 61. 

Mylae, battle of, 110, 146. 
Myonnesus, battle of, 119. 
Mysia, 20, 21. 

Nabis, 80, 119. 

Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 16. 

Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 15, 16, 25. 

Nachod, battle of, 509. 

Nadir Shah, invades India, 442. 

Nafels, battle of, 250. 

Nagpur, raja of, 541. 

Najara, battle of, 259. 

Nancy, battle of, 262. 

Nangis, battle of, 480. 

Nankin, treaty of, 542, 561. 

Nantes, edict, see edict of, 369; revolu* 
tionary tribunal of, 454. 

Nantwich, battle of, 348. 

Napata, kingdom of, 5. 

Napier, 500. 

Napier, lord, 561. 

Naples {see Sicily), separated from Sicily, 
under Charles of Anjou, 226 : conquered 
by Charles VIII. , 262 ; by Alphonso of Ar- 
agon, 263 : by Louis XII. and Ferdinand, 
318 ; revolt of Masaniello, 327 ; ceded by 
Austria to Spain, 398, 416 ; transferred 
into Parthenopaean republic, 460 ; French 
garrison, 463 ; Bourbons banished, 468 ; 
restored, 483 ; revolutionary movements, 
487, 493 ; liberated by Garibaldi, 503. 

Napoleon I., emp. of the French {see Bona- 
parte, Napoleon), crowned, 465 ; k. of 
Italy, 467 ; protector of the confederacy 
of the Rhine, 468 ; divorced from Jose- 
phine, 473 ; birth of the k. of Rome, 474 ; 
campaign of Feb., 1814, 480 ; abdicated, 
481 ; removed to Elba. 481 ; return, 483, 
526; hundred days, 483 ; Waterloo, 484; 
transported to St. Helena, 484 ; death, 
527 ; entombment in Paris, 530. 

Napoleon III., emp. of the French {see 
Louis Napoleon), elected, 499, 531 ; at- 
tempted assassination, 531, 544 ; war 
with Italy, 502, 532 ; Mexican expedi- 
tion, 503 ; Luxembourg question, 511 ; 
Franco- Prussian war, 513 ; surrenders to 
William III., 517 ; death, 520, 533. 

Narragansett Indians, 359. 

Narses, 175, 188. 

Narva, battle of, 395. 

Narvaez, 285, 286. 

Naseby, battle of, 349. 

Nassau incorporated with Prussia, 510. 

National convention, 447,451, 452; federa- 
tion, 450 ; petition, 542. 

Naucraries, 53, 55, 58. 

Navarino, battle of, 489, 539. 

Navarre, origin, 209; Joanna, heiress of, 
marries Philip IV., 254; Charles the Bad, 
k. of, 258 ; in the Huguenot wars, 321. 

Navarrete, battle of, 276. 

Navigation act, 376 ; repealed, 543. 

Nayler, 377. 

Nebraska, admitted to the Union, 559. 

Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 6, 11, 16. 

Necker, 447, 449. 

Neerwinden, battle of, 370, 388, 453. 

Nehavend, battle of, 182, 193. 

Neku, k. of Egypt, 6, 11, 16. 

Nelson at Aboukir, 460 ; at Trafalgar 461 



Index. 



635 



Nemean festival, 42. 

Nemed, 39. 

Nepalese, conquered by Chinese, 444. 

Neptunus, 84. 

Nero, C. Claudius, consul, 117. 

Nero, Roman emp. , 150, 151. 

Nerva, Roman emp., 152. 

Nesselrode, 482. 

Netherlands, acquisition by the house of 
Burgundy, 328, 329 ; war of liberation, 
330 ; independence recognized, 331 ; war 
with Louis XIV., 367 ; with England, 
379, 380 ; New Amsterdam lost, 358 ; 
Spanish Netherlands given to Austria, 
strife with Joseph II. , 408 ; trans- 
formed into the Batavian republic, 456 ; 
into the kingdom of Holland, 468 ; in- 
corporated with France, 473 ; the French 
expelled, 479; kingdom of the Nether- 
-lands formed, 483 ; Belgium separated 
from Holland, 489. 

Neuchatel, given to Prussia, 393; to Ber- 
thier, 468 ; as principality restored to 
Prussia, 482 ; as canton joined to the 
Swiss confederacy, 483; revolt from 
Prussia, 492 ; given up by Prussia, 501. 

Neuhof, baron, k. of Corsica, 415. 

Neustria, decay of, 35 ; in the 2d division 
of the Frankish kingdom, 181 ; in the 3d, 
182, 183 ; in treaty of Verdun, 187. 

Neutrality act, 548. 

Nevada admitted to the Union, 558. 

Nevers, house of, 311. 

Neville's Cross, battle of, 268. 

New Albion, west, discovered by Drake, 
289 ; east, granted to Plowden, 293. 

New Amsterdam, founded, 298 ; captured 
by English, 358, 379. 

Newbury, battles of, 348. 

Newcastle, ministry of, 438, 439. 

Newcomen, 486. 

New England, named, 294 ; presidency of, 
361 ; Indian hostilities in, 417. 

New Forest, 230. 

Newfoundland, discovery, 284, 287 ; Gilbert 
takes possession of, 289 ; grant of a part 
to sir Geo. Calvert, 299. 

New France, French settlements in, 299 ; 
name extended to the west, 364, 365 ; 
ceded to England, 422. 

New Granada, 488. 

New Hampshire, granted to Mason, 296; 
separated from Massachusetts, 359 ; in- 
surrection in, 432. 

New Haven, colony of, 357 ; union with 
Connecticut, 358. 

New Jersey, granted to Berkeley and Car- 
teret, 358 ; under Andros, 361 ; divided 
into east and west Jersey, 359. 

New Netherlands, agreement with the 
united colonies, 367 ; granted to dukes of 
York and Albany, 358. 

New North Wales, 299. 

New Orleans, reserved to France, 422 ; 
British repulsed at, 551. 

Newport, treaty of, 351. 

New South Wales, 299. 

New Sweden, 298. 

Newton, Isaac, 388, 389. 

Newtown Butler, battle of 386. 

New York, name of New Amsterdam 
changed to, 338 ; captured by the Dutch, 



restored to England, 359 ; gov, Andros, 
359, 361; gov. Fletcher, 362 rgov. Bur- 
net, 417; settlement of Conn, boundary, 
418; treaty with the Iroquois, 418; occu- 
pied by the British, 428 ; evacuated, 432. 

Ney, 467 ; " bravest of the brave," 475, 
477 ; joined Napoleon, 483 ; executed, 485 

Niagara, expedition against, 421, 423. 

Nicaea, council of, 159 ; Greek empire of, 
216. 

Nice, truce of, 304; annexed to France, 
502. 

Nicephorus Phocas, Greek emp., 210. 

Nicholas I., tsar of Russia, 488 ; Polish 
revolution, 490 ; intervention in Hun- 
gary, 495; joins Austria, 498; Crimean 
war, 499 ; death, 500. 

Nicholas V., anti-pope, 247. 

Nicias, 65-67 ; peace of, 66. 

Nicomedes, k. of Bithynia, 78 ; III., 129, 
134. 

Niels, k. of Denmark, 208. 

Nightingale, Florence, 500. 

Nihilists, 525, 526. * 

Nikita, pr. of Montenegro, 521. 

Nikolsburg, truce of, 5U9. 

Nile, battle of tue, 460, 536. 

Nimrod, k. of Assyria, 5, n. 2 ; 13. 

Nimwegen, peace of, 368. 

Nineteen propositions, 347. 

Nineveh, on the Tigris, 12; foundation, 
14 ; captured by Cyaxares, 15, 25 ; battle 
of, 192. 

Ninus, 14. 

Nippon, proper meaning, 32, n. 2. 

Nisib, battle of, 491. 

Nitta Yoshisada, 243. 

Nizam ul Mulk, 442. 

Noah, 36, 39. 

Noailles, vicomte de, 450. 

Nobility in Rome, 101, 102 ; abolished iu 
France, 453 ; new nobility, 467. 

Nobunaga, 355, 356. 

Noisseville, battle of, 516. 

Nola, battle of, 149. 

Nollendorf, battle of, 477, 478. 

Nombre de Dios, 289. 

Non-jurors, 386. 

No popery riots, 440. 

Nordlingen, battle of, 313. 

Nore, mutiny at the, 536. 

Noreia, battle of, 127. 

Noricum, 148, 167. 

Normandy, settled, 202; Vexin annexed 
to, 203 ; duke William conquers Eng- 
land, 206 ; belongs to Henry II. of Eng- 
land, 231 ; conquered by Philip Augus- 
tus, 227. 

Normans. See Northmen. 

North, sir Francis, 382. 

North, lord, administration, 400, 425; re- 
signs, 441. 

Northampton, battle of, 272. 

North Anna, battle of, 558. 

Northbrook, lord, viceroy of India, 547. 

North Carolina, separated from South Car- 
olina, 418 ; colonial charter suspended, 
427 ; insurrection in, 425 ; accepted the 
constitution of U. S., 547. 

Northcote, sir Stafford, 545. 

Northern convention, 462 463. 

Northern war, 394. 



6ae 



Index. 



North German Confederation. See Ger- 
many. 

Northmen, wars with Charles the Great, 
185 ; ravages in France and Germany, 
193, 201 ; settled in Italy, 198, 199, 200 ; 
siege of Paris, 201 ; settlement, 202 ; in 
England, 203, 204, 205 ; conquest of Eng- 
land, 206. 

Northumberland, d. of, 336 ; e. of, 270, 271. 

Northumbria, kingdom of, 178, 179, 180. 

Norway, early history to 1103, 208 ; from 
death of Magnus Barfod to union of Cal- 
mar, 1103-1397, 238 ; to 1524, 276, 351 ; 
to 1789, 409 ; ceded to Sweden, 479, 483; 
war with Sweden, 484 ; constitutional 
contest in, 526. 

Notables, assembly of, 447. 

Notium, battle of, 69. 

Nottingham, e. of, impeached, 270. 

Nottingham, e. of, sec. of, state, 385, 433 ; 
pres. of council, 436. 

Novara, battle of, 319, 488, 494. 

Nova §cotia, granted to sir Wm, Alexan- 
der, 295, 299 ; ceded to England, 393 ; 
422, 439 ; fisheries in, 432. 

Novgorod, 208, 277. 

Novi, battle of, 461. 

Nullification proclamation, 553. 

Numa Pompilius, k. of Rome, 88. 

Numantia, .destruction of, 123. 

Numerianus, Roman emp., 158. 

Numidia, divided between Bocchus and 
Gauda, 121, 127, 142. 

Nuremberg, peace of, 303 ; fortified camu 
of, 312. 

Nymphenburg, alliance of, 401. 

Nystadt, peace of, 397. 

Oates, Titus, plot, 381 ; trial, 383 ; pardon, 
386. 

Oaths of allegiance and supremacy, 386. 

Obelisks, 3. 

Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, 284. 

Occasional conformity act, brought in, 433, 
434 ; passed, 435 ; repealed, 437. 

Octavia, 145, 150. 

Octavianus, C. Julius Caesar ; negotiations 
with the senate, 144 ; appointed consul, 
145 ; receives the west, 145 ; war with 
Sextus Pompeius and Antonius, 146 ; sole 
ruler, 147. See Augustus. 

Odenathus, 157. 

Odin, 164, 165. 

Odo, b. of Bayeux, 229 ; c. of Paris. See 
Eudes. 

Odovaker, ruler of Italy, 162, 173 ; over- 
thrown by Theodoric, 174. 

Odysseus, 47. 

(Edipus, 46. 

(Eneus, k. of Athens, 44. 

(Enophyta, battle of, 63. 

Offa, k. of Mercia, 180. 

Offices of state opened to plebeians, 101. 

Oglethorpe, James, settles Georgia, 418, 
419. 

Ohio admitted to the Union, 549. 

Ohio Company, 419, 420. 

Olaf Hunger, k. of Denmark, 208. 

Olaf , k. of Denmark, 237 ; of Norway, 240. 

Olaf, St., k. of Norway, 209; Traetelje, 
first k. of Norway, 208; Trygvasson, k. 
of Norway, 208, 209. 



Olaf, the Lap-king, of Sweden, 208. 

Oldcastle, sir John, 271. 

Old French and Indian war, 420. 

Oldenburg, 409 ; house of, 351 ; annexed 
to France, 473. 

Oliva, peace of, 373. 

Olivarez, 332. 

Ollivier, ministry of, 512, 532. 

Olmutz, conference of, 498 ; siege of, 404. 

Olybrius, Roman emp. , 162. 

Olympiad, first, 50. 

Olympian festival, 42. 

Olympias, 77. 

Olynthiac orations, 72. 

Olynthus, battle of, 65 ; 70 ; alliance with 
Philip, 71 ; revolt and destruction, 72. 

Omar, 182, 192. 

Omar Pacha, 499. 

Ommiads obtained the caliphate, 182 : over- 
thrown by Abbasides, 183 ; founded cal- 
iphate of Cordova, 183, 209. 

O'Neil, Hugh. See Tyrone. 

Onomarchus, 72. 

Opequan, battle of, 558. 

Opium war, 542, 561. 

Oppius, Spurius, 98. 

Optimates, 101. 

Orange, William of (the Silent), 330, 331. 

Orban Frere, ministry, 525. 

Orchomenus, battle of, 131. 

Ordinance for the government of the terri- 
tory northwest of the Ohio, 433. 

Ordinances instead of acts passed by long 
parliament, 347. 

Orebro, peace of, 474. 

Oregon admitted to the Union, 556 ; boun- 
dary decided, 543, 560 ; treaty, 554. 

Orellana, Francisco, 288. 

Orford (adm. Russell), invites William III., 
384 ; victory of La Hogue 387 ; created 
earl of Orford, impeached, 388. 

Organic statute, 490. 

Orinoco, discovery of, 283. 

Orkneys, conquest of, 209. 

Orleanists, 530. 

Orleans besieged by Attila, 173; maid of, 
260 ; cap. of Burgundy, 181 ; battle of, 
518. 

Orleans, d. of, murdered, 259 ; death, 530 ; 
Gaston of, conspiracies of, 325, 32,6, 366 ; 
Philip of, regent, 445; Philip Egalitt*, 
450 ; execution of, 455. 

Orleans, house of, strife with Burgundy, 
259 ; comes to the throne in France, 
317 ; again in 1830, 489, 529 ; expelled, 
530 

Orloff, 411. 

Ormaguas, empire of the, 288. 

Ormond,duke of, impeachment, 437. 

Ormuzd. See Ahuramazda. 

Orodes I., k. of Parthia, 30. 

Orsini, 531. 

Osborne, sir Thomas. See Danby, 880. 

Osiris, 2, 3. 

Osman I., 278 ; Pasha, 522. 

Osnabriick, negotiations for peace at, 315. 

Ostend East India Co., 437. 

Ostmark (Lusatia), formation of, 194 ; Ba 
varian Ostmark reestablished, 196 ; en 
larged, 199. See Austria. 

Ostrach, battle of, 460. 

Ostracism, 55. 



Index. 



637 



Ostrogoths. See East Goths. 

Ostrolenka, battle of, 490. 

Oswald, of Northumbria, 180. 

Oswego, captured by Montcalm, 421. 

Oswieu, k. of Northumbria, 180. 

Othmann, 182. 

Otho. For German rulers, see Otto. 

Otho, Roman emp., 151. 

Otis, James, 422, 423. 

Otterburne. -See Chevy Chase. 

Otto the Finne, marg. of Brandenburg, 
249. 

Otto L, k. of Greece, accession, 489 ; ex- 
pulsion, 505. 

Otto I. the Great, emp. of the H. R. E., 
195 ; II., 196, 197 ; III., " Wonder of the 
World," 197; IV., of Brunswick, 223. 

Otto of Nordheim, 199. 

Otto of Wittelsbach, 222. 

Otto the Illustrious, d. of Saxony, 194. 

Ottocar, k. of Bohemia, 244. 

Oudenarde, battle of, 392, 435. 

Oudh, province in India, 22; under the 
Guptas, 24; independence of, 442: an- 
nexation, 546. 

Oudinot, 475, 477, 480. 

Ovando, 283. 

Overbury, sir Thomas, 341. 

Ovidius Naso, P., 83, 148. 

Oxenstierna, Axel, 313, 314, 315. 

Oxford, parliament of Charles I. at, 348. 

Oxford, e. of (Harley), lord high trea- 
surer, 435 ; dismissed, 435 ; impeached, 
437. 

Paches, 66. 

Pacific Ocean, discovered, 284. 

Pacte de famine, 446. 

Paix des dames, 303 ; de monsieur, 322. 

Paleeologi, Greek emperors, 278. 

Palseologus, Michael, 216. 

Palatinate, electorate, 248 ; in the thirty 
years' war, 310; division of, 316; war 
over the succession in, 369 ; devastation 
of, 370 ; in the war of the Bavarian suc- 
cession, 406. 

Palestine, 6, 7. 

Palikao, battle of, 502, 562. 

Palladius, in Ireland, 39. 

Palm, execution of, 468. 

Palmerston, lord, in the Egyptian trouble, 
491 ; alliance with Turkey, 499 ; for. 
sec, home sec, premier, 543 ; second 
ministry, death, 544. 

Palmyra, 157. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 554. 

Pampeluna, siege of, 479. 

Panama congress, 552. 

Pandulf, 234. 

Panipat, battles of, 353 ; 443. 

Pannonia, Roman prov., 149, 167. 

Panormus, 17, 20 ; battle of, 111. 

Pansa, 144. 

Paoli, 415. 

Papacy, origin, 175 ; foundation of its sec- 
ular power, 184 ; German popes, 196 ; 
Gregory VII., investitures, 199; Canos- 
sa, 200 ; concordat of Worms, 201 ; Ur- 
ban II., crusades, 213-217 ; contest with 
Frederic I., 221 ; Innocent III., 223 ; Greg- 
ory IX., strife with Frederic II., 224, 225 ; 
council of Lyons, 225 ; Adrian IV. gives 



Ireland to Henry II., 232 ; Innocent III., 
contest with John, 233; council of Con 
stance proclaims its superiority, 251 ; 
Boniface VIII., quarrel with Philip 
the Fair, 254 ; Babylonish captivity in 
Avignon, 255, 263 ; great schism, 263 : 
reformation, 301 ; council of Trent, 305 ; 
anti-reformation, 306; Alexander VI „ 
Gregory XIII., reform of calendar, 327 ; 
dispute with Henry VIII., 334: bull ap- 
portioning the undiscovered portions of 
the world, 353 ; Pius VI. and Joseph II., 
408 ; Pius VI., seized by the French, 459 ; 
concordat of 1801, 463 ; Pius VII., seized 
by Napoleon, 473 ; receives the papal 
states again, 483: Pius IX., 492; revolt 
in Rome suppressed by French, 493 ; 
honorary president of the Italian league, 
502 ; Vatican council papal infallibility, 
512; temporal power of the pope abol- 
ished, 518 : guarantee for the pope, 520 ; 
contest with Italy, Prussia, Switzerland, 
521 ; Leo XIII ., 524. 

Papal states founded, 184 ; estates of 
Matilda obtained, 223 ; independent - of 
the empire, 263 ; declining prosperity, 
416 ; cession of Bologna, Ferrara, the 
Romagna, 458 ; transformation into the 
Roman republic, 459 ; without Romagna, 
Bologna, and Ferrara restored to the 
pope, 464 ; incorporated with France, 
473 ; restored to the papacy, 483 ; Bo- 
logna, Ferrara, Romagna, incorporated 
with Italy, 402 ; patrimonium Petri to be 
protected by Italy, 503 ; patrimonium 
Petri also incorporated, 518. 

Paper, improvement in, 279. 

Paphlagonia, 21, 136. 

Papin, Denis, 486. 

Papirius Carbo, 125, 127, 130, 131 ; Cursor, 
105. 

Papists disabling act, 381. 

Pappenheim, 311, 312. 

Paraguay, discovery of, 286 ; rule of Fran- 
cia, 488. 

Paris, Lutetia Parisiorum, occupied by La- 
bienus, 139; court-camp of Childeberfc 
I., 181 ; siege by Otto II., 196; siege by 
the Northmen, 201 ; capital of the French 
monarchy (see Laon), 202 ; entrance oi 
the allies, 481 ; second capture, 484 ; 
siege, 517 ; bombardment, 519 : capitu- 
lation, 519 ; second siege, 530. See, also, 
France. 

Paris, peace of 1763, 422, 439 ; of 1783, 
431, 441 ; between Sweden and France, 
473 ; of 1814, 481 ; of 1815, 485 ; closing 
the Crimean war, 501. 

Paris, son of Priam, 47. 

Paris, Matthew, 235. 

Parker, archb. of Canterbury, 338. 

Parliament, in England, the witan, 177: 
p. of Simon of Montfort, 234 ; taxation 
without consent of p., illegal, 266 ; first 
perfect p., 267 ; separation into two 
houses, 268 ; the " good p.," the " won- 
derful p.," 269; English in the house 
of commons, 271 ; grand protestation 
342 ; petition of right, 343 ; scene in the 
commons, 343 ; no p. for 11 years, 344 ; 
the "short p.," 345; the "long p.,' 1 
345; "Rump, - ' 376; " Barebone ! s p.,'' 



638 



Index. 



376; long p. dissolved, 378; resume of 
its history, 378, n. ; "convention p., ;; 
378; "cavalier p.," 378; convention p., 
385 ; first triennial p^ 388 ; first p. of 
Great Britain, 434; first septennial p., 
437 ; Wilkes, 440 ; speeches printed, 440 ; 
contractors and revenue officers excluded, 
441 ; first imperial p., 520 ; Catholics first 
admitted, 339 ; reform act, 540 ; annual 
p. demanded, 542 ; property qualification 
abolished, Jews admitted, 2d reform act, 
544. 

Parliament of France, explained, 254; mixed 
chambers, 324 : mixed chambers in 4 par- 
liaments, 324 ; resistance of the p. of 
Paris. 366 ; p. of Paris abolished, but re- 
stored, 446 ; again abolished, 447. 

Parliament of Germany, 493-498. 

Parma ceded to Spanish Bourbons, 403, 416 ; 
ceded to France, 463 ; given to Napoleon's 
wife, 481 ; incorporated with Sardinia, 
502. 

Parma, d. of, 331, 458. 

Parmenio, 74, 75. 

Parnell, 545. 

Parthenon, built, 64 ; blown up, 416. 

Parthenopaean republic, kingdom of Naples 
transformed into, 460 ; abolished, 461. 

Parthia, on the plateau of Iran , 24 ; revolt 
subdued by Darius, 27 ; geography of, 
29 ; revolt under Arsaces, 29 ; kingdom 
of, wars with Rome, etc., 30; kingdom 
of, 78 ; Crassus, 140 ; war with Trajan, 
153 ; dissolution of monarchy, 30, 155. 

Partholan, k. of Ireland, 38. 

Partition of Poland, I., 411 ; II., 413 ; III., 
414. 

Partition of Prussia proposed, 404. 

Partition treaties, 391. 

Paschal II., pope, 201; III., 221. 

Paskevitch, 489, 490, 495, 499. 

Passarowitz, peace of, 397. 

Passau, convention of, 305, 317. 

Patkul, 394, 395. 

Patna, massacre of, 444. 

Patricians, origin, 88, 90 ; conflicting views 
concerning. 94 ; conflict with the plebei- 
ans, 95, 96, 97, 100 ; create a new office, 
but soon lose exclusive control of all 
offices, 101. 

Paul I., tsar of Russia, 459, 462, 463. 

Paul IV., pope, 327. 

Paullus, L. iEmilius, 112 ; consul, falls at 
Cannae, 115 ; the younger, victory over the 
Lusitanians, 118 ; defeated Perseus, 120. 

Paulus Diaconus, 186. 

Pausanias, 60, 61, 69. 

Pavia, 175 ; siege, 184 ; battle of, 303. 

Peasants' war, in Germany, 302. 

Pedro, I., emp. of Brazil, 488 ; II., 488. 

Peel, Robert, home sec, 539: first adminis- 
tration, 540 ; second administration, 542. 

Peking, treatv of, 502, 543, 562. 

Pelagius, 183. 

Pelasgians, 43, 49. 

Pelham, Henry, administration, 438. 

Pelissier, 500. 

Pelopidae, 44. 

Pelopidas, 7<>, 71. 

Peloponnesian war, 64-69. 

Pelusium, 2; battle of, 7,27; taken by 
Persians, 191. 



Penates, 84. 

Penda, k. of Mercia, 179, 180. 

Peninsula campaign of McClellan, 557. 

Peninsula War, 471, 537. 

Penn, William, 360, 377. 

Pennsylvania granted to William Penn, 
359 ; government taken from Penn, 362; 
new charter obtained by Penn, 362. 

Penny postage in England, 542. 

Penobscot, 294, 300. 

Penrith, battle of, 438. 

Penruddock, rebellion of, 376. 

" Pensioned," parliament, 378, 381. 

Pensions, 552. 

Pentarchy of the great powers, 482. 

Pentland Hills, battle of, 379. 

Pepperell, William, 419. 

Pequigny, peace of, 274. 

Pequot war, 297. 

Perceval, 537. 

Percy, Harry (Hotspur), 270. 

Perdiccas, 74, 76. 

Pere la Chaise, 381. 

Pergamon, kingdom of, 78, 124. 

Pericles, rival of Cimon, 62 ; administ^. 
tion of, 64 ; death, 65. 

P^rier, 486, 527 ; ministry of, 529. 

Perioeci, 50. 

Perozes, k. of Persia, 189. 

Perperna, 132, 133. 

Perpetual peace, 319. 

Perry, com., at Yedo, 562. 

Perseus, k. of Macedonia, 78, 120. 

Persia, geography, 24 ; religion, 24, 25, 
revolt under Cyrus, 26 ; old Persian em. 
pire, ib. ; conquests of Cambyses and Da- 
rius, 27 ; administration of the empire, 
28 ; war with the Greeks of Asia Minor, 
ib. ; of Europe, 28, 56 ; decline and fall of 
the empire, 29 ; subject to Parthia, 30 ; 
new Persian empire founded, ib., 155, 
187 ; wars with Rome, 190 ; restored to 
the limits reached under Darius, 191 ; 
conquest by Arabs, 192, 193. 

Persian wars, I., II., 56; III., 58; IV., 
60. 

Pert, sir Thomas, 285. 

Pertinax, Roman emp., 154. 

Peru, exploration of, 286 ; conquest of by 
Pizarro, 287 ; a free state, 488. 

Perusia, civil war of, 145. 

Pescennius Niger, 155. 

Peshwa, 443, 541. 

Peter, k. of Aragon, 226; III., 276; IV., 
276. 

Peter the Cruel, k. of Castile, war with, 
258, 276. 

Peter I., the Great, tsar of Russia, 374 ; in 
England, 388 : war with Charles XII., k. 
of Sweden, 394, 395, 398, 410 ; II., 410; 
III., 406, 411. 

Peter the Hermit, 200, 213. 

Peter de la Mare, 269. 

Peter des Roches, 234. 
Peter de Vinea, 225. 

Peterborough, lord, 434. 

Peterborough, sack of, 204. 

Peterloo. See Manchester Massacre. 

Peterwardein, battle of, 397. 

Pe" tion, 451,454. 
Petition of Right, 343. 

Petrarca, Francesco, 263. 



Index. 



639 



Petre, father, 384. 

Petreius, 141, 142. 

Petronius Maximus, Roman emp., 161. 

Pfaffendorf, battle of, 405. 

Pharaoh, 2, n. 

Pharisees, 11. 

Pharnabazus, 68, 70. 

Phamaces, 142, 143. 

Pharsalus, battle of, 141. 

Phidias, 64. 

Philadelphia, foundation of, 360 ; occupied 
by British, evacuated, 429 ; centennial 
exhibition at, 560. 

Philadelphia, burning of the frigate, 549. 

Philaeni, altars of, 19. 

Philip, d. of Anjou. See Philip V., k. of 
Spain. 

Philip the Pair, archd. of Austria, 253, 
301, 328. 

Philip the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 258 ; the 
Good, 259. 

Philip I., k. of France, 203, 226; II., Au- 
gustus, crusade, 215 ; Bouvines, 223 ; 
reign, 226 ; intrigues against Richard of 
England, 232 ; trouble over Ingebord, 
235 ; III., le Hardi, 254 : IV., le Bel, 254 ; 
V., le Long, 'Abb; VI., 257. 

Philip, landgr. of Hesse, 304, 305. 

Philip, k. of Macedonia, 71 ; V., k., war 
with Rome, 116, 118; with Antiochus, 
119. 

Philip, d. of Orleans. See Orleans. 

Philip II., k. of Spain, war with Henry 
II., of France, 321; claim to French 
crown, 324; reign, 330; III., 331; IV., 
331 ; V., claim urged by Louis XIV., 391 ; 
war of Spanish succession 392 ; recog- 
nized in Spain, 393 ; claimant for Aus- 
trian succession, 400 ; reign, 414. 

Philip of Swabia, emp. of the H. R. E., 
223. 

Philip, king, Indian chief, 359. 

Philiphaugh, battle of, 348. 

Philippi, founded, 71 ; battle of, 145. 

Philippics of Demosthenes, 72; of Cicero, 
144. 

Philippus Arabs, Roman emp., 156, 188. 

Philistines, 7, 8, 14. 

Philocrates, peace of, 72. 

Philomelus, 72. 

Philopoemen, 80. 

Phips, sir Wm., gov. of Mass., 361. 

Phocasans, 19, 26. 

Phocion, 70, 79. 

Phoebidas, 70. 

Phoenicia, Phoenicians, expeditions of Ra- 
messu I., 5; war of Psamethik I., 6; 
subject to Tiglath-Pileser I., 14; geog- 
raphy, 16 ; religion, 16, 17 ; constitution 
of the cities, 17 ; Sidon's greatest power, 
ib. ; voyages and colonies, ib. ; rise of 
Tyre, 18; foundation of Carthage, ib.; 
decline of Phoenician cities, 19 ; subject 
to Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ib. ; 
to Macedon, the Seleucidae, the Ptole- 
mies, 20 ; retains native rulers under 
Persia, 26, 27 ; P. refuse to assist Camby- 
ses against Carthage, 27 ; revolt sup- 
pressed by Artaxerxes III., 29; never 
visited Britain, 37. 
Phraates, name of several Parthian kings, 
I., 29 ; II., 30 ; III., first war with Rome, 



30; IV., attacked by Antoniu6, 30. war 
with Augustus, 148. 

Phraortes, 15, 25. 

Phratries, 54. 

Phrixos, 46. 

Phrygia, 21, 22. 

PhylEe, 45, 54. 

Piacenza, 416, 467. 

Piasts, Poland under the, 277. 

Piccolomini, 313, 314. See iEneas Silvius. 

Picenum, 81, 83, 141. 

Pichegru, 455, 456, 459, 465. 

Piedmont, settled by Celts, conquered by 
Rome, 35, 118 ; under the East Goths, 
174 ; under the Langobards, 175 , con- 
quered by Charles the Great, 1S4 ; Caro- 
lingians in, 193; Otto I. conquers Be- 
rengar of Ivrea, 195, 196 ; Henry II. 
conquers Ardoin, 197; Lombard league 
and Frederic Barbarossa, 219-222 ; Fred- 
eric I., 224; divided into small states, 
262; under dukes of Savoy, 327; who 
became kings of Sardinia, 415 ; Napoleon 
occupies P., 458 ; Cisalpine republic, 459 ; 
abolished 460 ; restored, 462 ; Italian re- 
public, 464; Napoleon, k. of Italy, 467; 
ceded to France, 467 ; Lombardo- Vene- 
tian kingdom ceded to Austria, 483 ; rev- 
olutionary movements, 487 ; war between 
Austria and Sardinia, 494; intervention 
of France, Austrians expelled, 502, 503. 

Pierce, Franklin, 555. 

Piers Plowman, 268. 

Pignerol ceded to France, 325. 

Pilgrims, 294. 

Piilnitz, conference, 451 ; declaration 452. 

Pilpay, fables of, 191. 

Pindar, 73. 

Pinerolo, pacification of, 377. 

Pinto in Japan, 355. 

Pinzon Vincent Yanez, 284. 

Pipin, d'Heristal, 183 ; the Small, k. of the 
Franks, 175, 184. 

Piragus, fortified, 58,61,64; blockade of, 
69, 70. 

Pirates, war against, 134. 

Pisa, conquered by Genoa, 263; council 
of, 251. 

Pisistratus, 54. 

Pistoria, battle of, 137. 

Pitt, William, the elder. See Chatham. 

Pitt, William ; the younger, sketch of life, 
441 ; first administration, 442, 535 ; sec- 
ond administration, 536 ; death, 537. 

Pius II., pope, 253 ; VI , 407 ; VII., con- 
secrated Napoleon I., 465; imprisoned, 
473; returned to Rome, 482; IX., at- 
tempted reforms of, 492;^ death, 524. 

Pizarro, Francisco, 286, 287. 

Placida, 161. 

Plague in Germany, 248 ; in London, 379 

Plains of Abraham, battle of, 422. 

Plantagenet, house of, 231. 

Plassey, battle of, 443. 

Platseae, battle of, 60 ; surrenders, 66. 

Plato, 69. 

Plebeians, traditional origin, 89 ; true ori- 
gin, 90, 91, 92; admitted to senate, 94; 
contest with patricians, 95 ; tribunes, 
96 ; comitia tributa, 96, 97 ; secession, 
96 ; one plebeian consul, 101 ; all offices 
opened to, 101, 107. 



G40 



Judex. 



Plevna, capture of, 622. 
Plinius, the elder, 152. 
Piistoanax, 63. 
' Plon-Plon," 466, 534. 

Plowden, sir Edward, 293. 

Plunkett, execution of, 382 

Plymouth, council of, 294 ; surrenders 
charter, 297 ; settlement of, in New Ens- 
land, 294. * 

Plymouth Company, 291, 293. 

Pocahontas, 291. 

Poischwizt, armistice of, 476. 

Poitiers, battle of (Charles Martel), 183 ; 
(Black Prince), 258. 

Poitou, acquired by England, 226, 231, 
258 ; lost, 260. 

Poland, kingdom formed, 168 ; war with 
Henry II., 197; with Conrad II.; sub- 
mits to empire, 198 ; under the Piasts, 
united with Lithuania, 277 ; Jagallons ; 
P. an elective monarchy, 352 ; elector of 
Saxony, k. of P., 372 ; republic, 374 ; 
Stanislaus, k., 395; truce of, 397; war 
of the Polish succession, 398, 414 ; first 
division, 411 ; second, 413 ; third, 414 ; 
kingdom of, 483 ; revolution in 490 

Pole, Michael de la, 269. 

Pole, Reginald, card., 335, 338. 

Polignae ministry, 527. 

Polk, James K., 554. 

Pollentia, battle at, 171. 

Polo, Marco, 242, 282. 

Polycrates of Samos, 7. 

Polygnotus, 64. 

Polysperchon, 76. 

Pombal, marquis of, 415. 

Pomerania, extinction of the ducal house, 
314 ; given to Sweden and Brandenburg, 
316 ; lost by Sweden, Hither P. given to 
Prussia, 396 ; Hither P. ceded to Den- 
mark, 479 ; to Prussia, 482. 

Pompadour, marquise de, 403, 446. 

Pompeii, 83, 152. 

Pompeius (Magnus), subjected the Jews to 
Rome 11; consul, 129; joined Sulla, 
131 ; war with Sertorius, 133 ; defeats 
the pirates, 134 ; command in Asia, 135 ; 
firs* triumvirate, 137 ; consul, 140 ; de- 
feat at Pharsalus, 141 ; death, 142, 143 ; 
Sextus escaped to Spain, 142; repulsed 
Caesar, 143 ; treaty with triumvirs, 145 ; 
defeated and died, 146. 

Ponce de Leon, 284. 

Pondicherri, 443. 

Poniatowski, 413. 

Pontefract, castle of, 270. 

Pontiac, conspiracy of, 423. 

Pontifices, college of, 85. 

Pontius Gavius, 105, 106. 

Pontus, kingdom of, 78 ; first Mithridatic 
war, 129; second, 132; third, 134; P. 
Roman province, 136. 

Poona, confederacy of, 443. 

Poor-law amendment act, 540. 

Pope, Alexander, 436. 

Popham, George, 293. 

Popillius Laenas, 121. 

Popish plot, 381. 

Poplicola, L. Valerius, 93. 

Poppaea Sabina, 150. 

Populonia, battle of, 107. 

Porrex. k. of Britain, 37. 



Porsena of Clusium, 95. 

Port Royal, foundation of, 290 ; razed bj 
Argal, 292 ; captured by Phips, 361 ; by 
English, 363. 

Porteous riots in Edinburgh, 438. 

Portland, d. of, administration, 537. 

Porto Bello captured by Vernon, 438. 

Portocarrero, card., 391. 

Portugal granted to Henry, count of Bur- 
gundy, 240 ; his son becomes king of 
Portugal, ib. ; P. reaches its greatest 
power, discoveries, and settlements, 276, 
280 ; Portuguese in India, 354 : Emman- 
uel the Great ; Spanish province ; revolt, 
332, 393 ; house of Braganza ; earth- 
quake of Lisbon, 415 ; refuses to join 
continental system ; occupied by French, 
470 ; peninsula war, 471 ; revolution, 488. 

Poscherun, treaty of, 475. 

Potemkin, 412, 413. 

Potocki, Felix and Ignaz, 413. 

Potosi, mines of, 288. 

Poutrincourt, 290. 

Powhattan, 291. 

Poyning's law. See statute of Drogheda. 

Praemunire, statute of, 269, 270. 

Praetorship, established, 101 ; first ple- 
beian, 102 ; limit of age for, 120 ; num- 
ber of, 122 ; pro-praetors, 122. 

Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis, of France, 
227 ; of Charles VII., revoked, 260 ; of 
the emp. Charles VI., 398, 403. 

Prague, battle of, 404; compact of, 252; 
congress at, 476 ; peace of, 314, 510 ; uni- 
versity of, founded, 248; secession of 
Germans, 251 ; lectures in Czechish lan- 
guage established, 526. 

Presbyterians, 350. 

President, engagement with the Little Belt, 
551. 

Pressburg, anti-Jewish riots, 526 ; peace of, 
467. 

Preston, 425. 

Preston, battle of, 437. 

Preston Pans, battle of, 351, 438. 

Pretender, old P., 437 ; young P., 438. 

Priam, 47. 

Pride's Purge, 351. 

Prie, marquise de, 446. 

Prim, murdered, 512. 

Prince Edward's Island, 287. 

Princes in the Tower, murder of, 275. 

Princeton, battle of, 428 ; foundation of 
college at, 419. 

Pring, Martin, 290. 

Printing, invention of, 211, 253, 279. 

Probus, Roman emp., 157. 

Proconsuls, the first, 105; proconsulai 
provinces, 123. 

Propertius.S., 148. 

Property qualification abolished, 544. 

Prophets in Israel, 9. 

Pro-praetors, 122. 

Proscriptions, under Sulla, 132; undel 
the second triumvirate, 145. 

Protectorate in England, 376. 

Protestant union, 308. 

Protestants, 303. 

Providence, foundation of, 297. 

Providence Plantations, charter of, 358. 

Provisions of Oxford, 234. 

Prusias, 78, 120. 



Index. 



641 



Prussia (see also Brandenburg), inhabited 
by Wends, 168 ; conquered by the Teu- 
tonic order, 218, 277 ; West Prussia ceded 
to Poland, 277 ; reformation in, Albert 
of Brandenburg becomes d. of P. under 
Polish suzerainty, 302; elector of Bran- 
denburg becomes k. of Prussia, 372, 873 ; 
P. obtains Neuchatel, and upuer Guel- 
ders, relinquishes claims upon Orange to 
France, 393; cessions from Sweden, 396 ; 
P. under Frederic the Great, 405-408; 
claims upon Silesia, 400 ; proposed parti- 
tion of P., 404; Silesia retained, 406; 
shares in the partition of Poland, 411, 
413, 414; joins first coalition against 
Prance, 452; alliance with England, 
455 ; peace of Basle, 457 ; indemnifica- 
tions, 465 ; treaty with Napoleon, 467 ; 
not in the confederacy of the Rhine, 
468 ; war with France, 468 ; peace of Til- 
sit, 470; reform of the state and army, 
471 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress of 
Vienna, 482; receives Saarbrtieken, 485; 
Zollverein, 491 ; united Landtag, 492 ; up- 
rising in Berlin, 492; Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, 496 ; offer of German crown to 
king of Prussia, 497 ; revised constitu- 
tion, 497 ; conference of Olmiitz, 498 ; 
William I., 503; constitutional conflict, 
Bismarck, 504; war with Denmark, 
505 ; with Austria, 507-510 ; Luxemburg 

* question, 511; war with France, 513- 
520 ; king of Prussia German emp., 519 ; 
number of votes in the Bundesrath, 520 ; 
May laws, civil marriage, 521 ; alliance 
with Austria, 525 ; royal rescript of Jan., 
1882, 525. 

Pruth, peace of the, 395. 

Prynne, William, 344. 

Prytanies, 55. 

Psamethik, ks. of Egypt: I. revolted 
against Assyria, 6, 15; II., 6; III., de- 
feated by Oambyses, 7. 

Psammeticus. See Psamethik I. 

Pseudo-Philippus, 122; Smerdis, 27. 

Pteria, battle at, 21, 26. 

Ptolemais. See Acre. 

Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 11, 20, 74, 76, 
77, 142. 

Public peace, 300. 

Publilius Philo, 102, 105. 

Pugacheff, 412. 

Pul, Chaldean king, 13. 

Pulaski, death of, 430. 

Pultowa, battle of, 395. 

Pultusk, battle of, 395. 

Punic wars, I., 109 ; II., 35, IIS ; III., 121. 

Punitz, battle of, 395. 

Punjab, 22; invaded by Alexander, 23; 
conquered by Graaco-Bactrians. ib.; by 
Scythians, 24, 241 ; annexed, 546. 

Pupienus Maximus, 156. 

Purandocht, reigu of, 192. 

Puritans in America, 295 ; in England, 345. 

Putnam, general, 428. 

Puttkamer, v., 525. 

Pydna, battle of, 120. 

Pygmalion, of Tyre, 18. 

Pylos.66. 

Pym, John, M. P., 341 ; imprisoned, 342 ; 
impeached, 346: death, 348. 

Pyramids, 3 ; battle of the, 460. 



Pyrenees, battle of, 479; peace of'the^ 

366. 
Pyrrhus, k. of Britain, 37. 
Pyrrhus, k of Epirus, aids the Syracu- 

sans, 20; war with the Romans, 107- 

109 ; death, 108. 
Pytheas of Massilia, 37, 167. 
Pythian festival, 42. 

Quadi, war with Rome, 154. 

Quadruple alliance, 397, 437, 445. 

Quaestiones perpetuae, 122. 

Quaestors appointed, 93 ; two more added, 

99 ; accompany pro-praetors, 122 ; 20 

quaestors, 132. 
Quaker Hill, battle of, 430. 
Quatre-Bras, battle of, 484. 
Quebec, founded, 299 ; taken by the Kertks < 

299; surrendered to the English, 422; 

besieged in vain by Arnold, 427 ; battle 

Queen Anne's bounty, 434 ; war, 363, 365 

Queenstown, battle of, 551. 

Quiberon Bay, battle of, 439. 

Quincy, Josiah, 425. 

Quito, 287. . 

Quivira, 287. 

Rabelais, 319. 

Racine, 371. 

Radagais, 171. 

Radetzki, 494, 523. 

Radowitz, 497, 498. 

Radzivil, 490. 

Raedwald, k. of East Anglia, 179. 

Raetia, 148, 167. 

Rafn, descripton of Vinland, 281. 

Ragaz, battle of, 253. 

Raglan, lord, 500. 

Ragnarok, 166. 

Railroads', invention, 486: in the United 

States, 486, 552. 
Rain, battle of, 312. 
Rajputana, 22 ; conquered by Akbar, 354; 

unsuccessful wars of Aurangzeb in, 389 ; 

independent, 442. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, grant of Virginia, 289 ; 

expedition to Guiana, 290 ; expedition to 

the Orinoco and execution 341. 
Ramannarari, 14. 
Ramayana, Indian epic, 23. 
Rambouillet decree, 550. 
Ramessu, k. of Egypt, II., the Greek Sesos- 

tris, 5 ; III., Rhampsinitus, 5. 
Ramillies, battle of, 392, 434. 
Ramses. See Ramessu II. 
Randolph, Edward, 361 ; Peyton, 426. 
Raphael, Santi, 327. 
Rastadt, peace of, 394 ; congress of, 459 ; 

dissolution, 461. 
Ratisbon. See Regensburg. 
Raucoux, battle of, 402. 
Ravaillac, 325. 
Ravenna, imperial residence, 161 ; resi 

dence of Theodore, 174 ; battle of, 318. 
Recimir, 162. 

Reciprocity treaty, 543, 555. 
Recoinage act, 388. 
Reconstruction act, 559. 
Redan, storm of the, 501. 
Reform act, first, 540 ; Scotch, 540 ; second 

544 



642 



Index. 



Refoimation, beginning of, 301; ir, Eng- 
land, 335 ; in France, 321 ; introduced 
into Geneva by Calvin, 304 ; in Switzer- 
land, 301. 

Regensburg, founded, 167, 215; electoral 
assembly at, 311 ; permanent diet at, 316, 
371 ; battle of, 471. 

ftegillus, battle of, 95. 

Kegulus, M. Atilius, 110, 111, 112. 

Reichenbach, battle of, 406 ; conference at, 
408; treaty of , 476. 

Reichsdeputationshauptschluss , 464. 

Reichshofen, battle of, 516. 

Reichskammergericht, 300. 

Reichstag, German, 511, 520, 526. 

Reign of terror, 454. 

Rekenitz, battle of, 196. 

Remigius, b. of Rheims, 174. 

Rense, electoral meeting at, 248. 

Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. See 
Ionian Islands. 

Republican party in U. S., 548; in France, 
530. 

Republics founded by the French during 
the revolution: Batavian, 456; Cisal- 
pine, 459 ; Helvetian, 460 ; Ligurian, 
459 ; Parthenopsean, 460 ; Roman, 459. 
[Seven Ionian Islands, founded by Rus- 
sia, 461.] 

Reservatum ecclesiasticum, 306, 310. 

Restoration of the Bourbons, 481, 484, 526, 
527; of the Stuarts, 378. 

Resumption of specie payments, 560. 

Reutlingen, battle of, 250. 

Revolution, American, 426 : Belgian, 408 ; 
of 1830, 489 ; Central American, 488 ; 
English, I., 347,375; II., 384; French, 
I., 447 ; II. (July), 529 ; III. (Feb.), 530 ; 
IV. (Sept.), 517; German, 492; Greek, 
488; Hungarian, 494 ; Italian, 490, 493, 
502 ; Japanese, 563 ; Polish, 490, 505 ; 
Portuguese, 488; South American, 488; 
Spanish, 488, 512. 

Revolutionary tribunal, 453. 

Rezonville, battle of, 516. 

Rhampsinitus. Ste Ramessu III. 

Rhe, Isle of, 343. 

Rhett, William, 363. 

Rhine cities, league of, 249. 

Rhode Island, colony, founded, 297 ; pe- 
tition of, to be admitted to the colonial 
union rejected, 357 ; charter, 358 ; gov- 
ernment, 361,362; accepted the consti- 
tution of U. S., 547; Dorr rebellion, 
554. 

Rhodes, colonized by Phoenicians, 17, 41 ; 
independent, 78 ; Roman province, 79 ; 
war with Antiochus III., 119, 120 ; cap- 
tured by Persians, 191 ; given to knights 
of St. John, lost to Turks, 217. 

Ribault, Jean, 288. 

Ricci, Jesuit general, 416. 

Richard of Clare, e. of Leinster, 232. 

Richard of Cornwall, elected einp. of H. R. 
E., 225. 

Richard I., Coeur-de-Lion, k. of England, 
crusade, 215 ; imprisoned, 216 ; released 
223; war with Philip Augustus, 226 
reign in England, 232; II., 269, 270 
III., 276. 

Richard, d. of York, 271. 

Richelieu, card., in thirty years' war, 311 



314; administration, 325; d. of, 487 
ministry, 527. 

Richmond, surrender of, 559. 

Richmond, e. of, 275. See Henry VIL, 
k. of England. 

Ridley, 338. 

Ried, treaty of, 478. 

Rienzi, Cola di, 263. 

Riga, siege of, 474. 

Rimnik, battle of, 413. 

Rio de la Plata, discovery, 285. 

Ripon, marq. of, viceroy of India, 547. 

Ripon, treaty of, 345. 

Rivers, e. of, execution, 274. 

Rizzio murdered, 338. 

Roanoke Island, colony, 289. 

Roberjot, murder of, 461. 

Robert of Belesme, 230. 

Robert, c. of Clermont, 324. 

Robert, d. of France, proclaimed k., 202* 

Robert I., k. of France, 203. 

Robert, d. of Normandy, 214, 230. 

Robert Guiscard, 200. 

Roberval, gov. of Canada, 287, 288. 

Robespierre, member of the Jacobins, 451 ; 
in the convention, 453 : at the head of 
the reign of terror, 454; crushes the 
moderates and radicals, 455 ; overthrow 
and execution, 456. 

Robinson, John, 294. 

Rochambeau, 430, 452. 

Roche, marquis de la, 290. 

Rochefort, 512. 

Rochester, e. of, 382, 383. 

Rockingham, first administration, 424, 440 ; 
second, 431, 441. 

Rocroy, battle of, 366. 

Rodney, 441. 

Roe, sir Thomas, 354. 

Koeskild, peace of, 373. 

Roger II., k. of the Two Sicilies, 218. 

Rogers, Wood, capt., 417. 

Rohan, card., 447. 

Roland, death of, 185. 

Roland, madame, executed, 455. 

Roldan, revolt of, 283. 

Rolf, 208 ; siege of Paris by, 201 ; first d. 
of Normandy, 202. 

Roman republic, proclaimed, 459 ; abol- 
ished, 461. 

Roman ow, house of, 353, 374. 

Rome, geography, 81 ; religion, 84 ; eth- 
nography, 85 ; origin, mythical and real, 
87 ; the kings in legend, 88 ; in history, 
90; constitution, 91 ; republic, constitu- 
tion, 93; patricians and plebeians, 95; 
decemvirs, 98; conquest by the Gauls, 
35, 99 ; equalization of the old ordei-s, 
100; Samnite and Latin wars, ll»4, 105, 
106 ; war with Tarentum, conquest of 
Italy, 107 ; Punic war, I., 109 ; II., 113 ; 
Hannibal in Italy, 114-117 ; Macedonian 
wars, 116, 118, 120, 121 ; war with Antio- 
chus, 119; Punic war, III., destruction 
of Carthage, 121 ; destruction of Corinth, 
122; provinces of Rome, 122; civil dis- 
turbances, the Gracchi, 124 ; Jugurthian 
war, 126 ; Cimbri and Teutones, 127 ; 
Mlthridatic wars, 129, 132, 134; Marius 
and Sulla, 130 : conservative reforms oi 
Sulla, 132 ; war with the gladiators, 133; 
with the pirates, 134 ; organization ej 



Index. 



643 



Asia, 136 ; Catiline, 136 ; Cicero, 137 ; 1st 
triumvirate, 137 ; conquest of Gaul, 138 ; 
civil war, 140 ; constitution under Caesar. 
143 ; assassination of Caesar, 144 ; 2d tri- 
umvirate, 145 ; war between Octavianus 
and Antonius, 146 ; Octavianus ruler and 
emperor, 147 : Julian emperors, 147-151 ; 
Flavian, 151 ; the good emperors, 152- 
154 ; emperors appointed by the soldiers, 
154 ; Aurelian, 157 ; Diocletian, 158 ; 
Constantine, 159 ; division of the empire 
into the eastern, or Greek, and the west- 
ern empire, 161 ; fall of the western em- 
pire, 162 ; Persian wars, 187, 188 ; Par- 
thian wars, 30. See Holy Roman Em- 
pire, and Eastern Empire. 

Rome (the city), described, 82; founded, 
87 ; Cloacae, Servian wall, 89 ; sacked by 
Gauls, 100 ; fire in, under Nero, 151 ; 
sacked by Alaric, 171 ; by the Vandals, 
173 ; seat of the papacy, 175 ; Pipin pa- 
tricius, 184 ; Charles the Great crowned 
in, 185 ; Arnulf, 194 ; Otto I., 195 ; Fred- 
eric III. (IV.), last emp., crowned in 
Rome, 253 ; sacked by the army of the 
constable of Bourbon, 303 ; occupied by 
the French, 459, 473 ; return of pope, 
482 ; occupied by French, 503 ; captured 
by Italians, 518 ; capital of Italy, 520. 

Romulus and Remus, 87. 

Romulus Augustulus, Roman emp., 162. 

Roncevaux, 185. 

Rooke, sir George, 434. 

Rosamunda, 175. 

Roses, wars of the, 272. 

Rosny. See Sully. 

Rossbach, battle of, 404. 

Rostra, 82, 104. 

Rothari, 175. 

Rouher, 512. 

Roum, sultanate of, 210. 

Roumania, independent, 524 ; kingdom, 524. 

Roumanian language, 153. 

Roundheads, 350. 

Roundway Down, battle of, 347. 

Rousseau, 448. 

Royalists, 350. 

Rudolf, archd. of Austria, 249. 

Rudolf, of Burgundy, k. of France, 202. 

Rudolf III., k. of Burgundy (Aries), be- 
queaths kingdom to Henry II., 198. 

Rudolf I., of Hapsburg, emp. of H. R. E., 
reign, 244; II., reign, 308. 

Rudolf, of Rheinfeld, d. of Swabia, 199 ; 
anti-king of Germany, 200. 

Rudolfian line, 316. 

Ruel, treaty of, 366. 

Rullianus, 102, 106. 

Rump parliament, in England, 351, 376 ; 
in Germany, 496. 

Rupert, count paiatine, 250. 251. 

Rupert, pr., at Edgehill, 347 ; at Marston 
Moor, 348 ; in cabinet, 380. 

Rurik, house of, 276, 352. 

Russell, adm. See Orford. 

Russell, lord, executed, 382. 

Russell, lord John, 539; home sec, 540; 
first ministry of, 543 ; foreign sec, 543; 
earl Russell, 544 ; second ministry, 544. 

Russia, Swedes subjugate the Slavs around 
Novgorod, 208 ; R. under the Mongols, 
241; under the house of Rurik, rise of 



Moscow, 276 j house of Rurik succeeded 
by that of Romanow, 353 ; Peter the 
Great, 374 ; war with Charles XII. , 394 ; 
peace of Nystadt, 397; seven years' war, 
403; Elizabeth succeeded by Peter III., 
Frederic's friend, 405; Catherine II., 
neutral, 406; war with Sweden, 409; 
house of Holstein-Gottorp in H. , 411 ; 
the partition of Poland, 411, 413, 414; 
peace of Kutschouc Kainardji, 412 ; Paul 
I. , 459 ; R. in the second coalition against 
France, 460 ; Suwaroff in Italy and Swit- 
zerland, 461; Alexander I., 463; third 
coalition, 467 ; war with France in alli- 
ance with Prussia, 468 ; peace of Tilsit, 
470 ; war with France, 474 ; burning of 
Moscow, 475 ; alliance of Kalisch with 
Prussia, 475; receives Y^arsaw at the 
congress of Vienna, 483; Nicholas I., 
488 ; war with Turkey, 487 ; peace of 
Adrianople, 489 ; revolt in Poland, 490 ; 
alliance of 1840, 491 ; intervention in 
Hungary, 495 ; Crimean war, 499 ; peace 
of Paris, 501 ; Turkish troubles, 521 ; 
war with Turkey, 522 ; peace of San Ste- 
fano, 523 ; cungress of Berlin, 524 ; Alex- 
ander III. , 525 ; Nihilists, 526. 

Rustchuck, battle at, 473. 

Rut, John, 286. 

Riitli, oath on the, 246. 

Ruyter, de, 368, 376, 379. 

Rydesdale, William of, 272. 

Ryswick, peace of, 362, 371. 

Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas, 192. 

Saaifeld, battle of, 469. 

Sabellians, 86. 

Sabines, Sabine women, 88; war with 
Rome, 89 ; subjugated, 107. 

Sacheverell, Dr. , 435. 

Sadducees, 11. 

Sadowa, battle of, 509. 

Saghalen, ceded to Russia, 32, n. 3. 

Saguntum, siege of, 113. 

Sahs, in India, 210. 

Saif , 190. 

St. Albans, battles of, 272. 

St. Aldegonde, 330. 

St. Augustine, castle of, 289 ; siege of, 419, 

St. Bartholomew, night of, 321. 

St. Clair, defeat of, 547. 

St. Claire sur Epte, treaty of, 202. 

St. Denis, 517. 

St. Esprit, mission of, 364. 

St. Estienne de la Tour, 300. 

St. Germain, peace of, 321 ; treaty of, 300. 

St. Germain-en-Laye, treaty of, 368, 374. 

St. Gotthard, battle of, 372 ^railroad, 526. 

St. Ignatius, massacre at, 357. 

St. Jacob, battle of, 253. 

St. John, Henry, dismissed from the cabi- 
net, 434 ; sec. of state, 435 ; created vise 
Bolingbroke, q. v. 

St. John, Oliver, 341. 

St. John, knights of, 217. 

St. John River, discovery of, 290. 

St. Just, 454, 456. 

St. Lawrence, discovery of, 284, 287. 

St. Leger, 428. 

St. Louis, settlement of, 365. 

St. Lucia, ceded to the English, 422. 

St. Mary, mission of, 364. 



644 



Index. 



St. Patrick, 39. 

St. Petersburg, foundation of, 395 ; peace 
of, 405, 474. 

St. Privat, battle of, 516. 

St. Quentin, battle of, 321, 338, 519. 

St. Rutb, gen., 387. 

St. Savior, colony of, 292. 

St. Vincent, ceded to English, 422. 

Saladin, 215. 

Salamanca, battle of, 474. 

Salamis, battle of, 59, 62. 

Salem, settled, 295 ; witchcraft, 362. 

Salic emperors, 198. 

Salic Franks, 170, 173. 

Salic law, 255, 491. 

Salii, or dancing priests, 85. 

Salisbury, e. of, 272. 

Salvius Julianus, 153. 

Salzburg, made an electorate, 464 ; given 
to Austria, 468 ; ceded to Bavaria, 472 ; 
ceded to Austria, 482. 

Samaria, 7 ; capital of Israel, 9 ; captured 
by Sargon, 10 ; tributary to Assyria, 14. 

Sammuramit, 14. 

Samnites, 81, 83; wars with Rome, I., 104 ; 
II., 105; III., 105; join Pyrrhus, re- 
conquered, 108 ; revolt after Cannas, 115 ; 
attack Rome, but are repulsed by Sulla, 
131. 

Samo, k. of the Slavs, 168. 

Samson, 8. 

Samuel, 8. 

Samurai in Japan, 212, 563. 

Sancho IV., k. of Castile, 276. 

Sancho I., k. of Navarre, 209; III ., the 
Great, 209. 

Sancroft, archb. of Canterbury, 384. 

San Domingo, foundation of, 283 ; sack of, 
290, 339. 

Sandon, 21, 26. 

Sandonidas, 21. 

Sandra-Kottos. See Chandragupta, 23. 

San Jago, 240, 328. 

San Stef ano, peace of, 523. 

Santa F<S, foundation of, 291. 

Sapor I. , k. of Persia, 187 ; II. , 188 ; III., 
189. 

Saragossa, surrender of, 471. 

Sarakos. See Asshur-ebil-ili. 

Sardanapalus. See Asshur-natzir-pal I., As- 
shur-bani-pal, Grecian myth concerning, 
16. 

Sardes, 21, 22, 26, 28. 

Sardinia, Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; sub- 
jugated by Carthage, 19 ; ceded to Rome, 
112 ; given to Sextus Pompeius, 146 ; 
Enzio, k. of Sardinia ; S. also claimed 
by the pope, 225 ; reserved for the em- 
peror, 393; seized by Spain, but aban- 
doned, and given to Savoy in exchange 
for Sicily ; dukes of Savoy, kings of Sar- 
dinia, 397, 415 ; compelled to cede Savoy 
and Nice to France, 458 ; possessions on 
the main-land occupied and annexed by 
France, 460 ; old dynasty restored, 483 ; 
Austrians put down the liberals, 488 ; 
war with Austria, 494 ; shares in the 
Crimean wars, 500 ; the French and Sar- 
dinians defeat Austria, 502, 531 ; Victor 
Emmanuel k. of Italy, 503. See Italy. 

Sargon, k. of Assyria, 10, 14. 

Sasbach, battle of, 368. 



Sarsfield, 387. 

Sassanidae, in Persia. 30. 155 ; fall of, 

182. 

Satsuma rebellion, 564. 

Saturninus, L. Appuleius, 128. 

Saucourt, battle of, 201. 

Saul, k. of the Jews, 8. 

Saussage at St. Savior, 299. 

Savage, conspiracy of, 339. 

Savannah, captured by the British, 430 5 
evacuated, 431 ; taken by Sherman, 558. 

Savery, capt. , 486. 

Savonarola, 327. 

Savoy, most powerful state in northern 
Italy, 327 ; obtains Sicily as a kingdom, 
393 ; exchanges Sicily for Sardinia, dukes 
become kings of Sardinia, 397 ; acquires 
part of Milan, 415 ; ceded to France, 458 ; 
restored, 485 : ceded again to i< ranee, 502. 

Savoy palace, 269 

Saxe, marshal, 438, 446. 

Saxon kings and emperors, 194. 

Saxons, pirates, 38 ; location, 170 ; settle 
in Britain, 172, 176, 177,178; subdued 
by Charles the Great, 184, 185. 

Saxony, 194 ; revolt against Henry IV., 
199,200; Lothar, duke, becomes emp., 
218 ; Saxony under Henry the Proud and 
Henry the Lion, 218, 219 ; division of the 
old duchy, 222 ; electorate given to Fred- 
eric, margrave of Meissen, 252 ; separa- 
tion of the Albertine (Catholic), and Er- 
nestine (Lutheran) line, 305 ; alliance of 
Ferdinand and the Lutheran elector, 
309 ; receives Lusatia, 314 ; Augustus 
II. , becomes k. of Poland, 372 ; deposed, 
395 ; Augustus III., claimant for Poland, 
398 , claimant for the Austrian succes- 
sion, 400 ; allied with Prussia, 408, 469 ; 
with Napoleon, 469 ; elector becomes 
king and joins confederacy of the Rhine, 
469 ; capture of the king, 478 ; half of S. 
ceded to Prussia, 483 ; revolutionary dis- 
turbances, 492, 499 ; allied with Aus- 
tria against Prussia, 507 ; vote in the 
Bundesrath, 520. 

Say and Seal, vise, 296. 

Saybrook united with Connecticut, 357. 

Scandinavia, geography, 163 ; ethnography, 
164; religion, 165. See Denmark, Nor- 
way, Sweden. 

Scharnhorst , 471, 476. 

Schenectady, destruction of, 361. 

Schill, 472. 

Schism act, repeal of, 437. 

Schism in the church, 221 ; the great S. , 
263. 

Schlegler, the, 250. 

Schleswig, foundation of, 194 ; yielded to 
the Danes, 198; war in Denmark over, 
236 ; conquered by Wallen stein, 310 ; 
taken from the duke of Holstein-Got 
torp by the Danes, 396 ; annexed to 
Denmark, 496 ; three wars with Den- 
mark, 496 ; delivered to thr "Panes, 498; 
incorporated with Denmark, 505; re- 
signed by Denmark, 506 ; provisionally 
governed by Prussia, 507 ; incorporated 
with Prussia, 510. 

Schmalkaldic league, 303 ; war, 305. 

Schoffer, Peter, 253. 

Schomberg, 384, 385, 386, P87. 



Index. 



645 



Schonbrunn, treaty of, 467. 

Schulenburg, 395. 

Schuyler, gen. , 429. 

Schwarzenberg, 47,4, 477, 478, 480. 

Schweinschadel, battle of, 509. 

Schweppermann , 247. 

Scipio, On., 112; killed, 116. 

Scipio (Asiaticus), L. Cornelius, 119. 

Scipio (Barbatus), L. Cornelius, 106. 

Scipio, P. Cornelius, 113, 115 ; killed, 116. 

Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus major), 
elected consul, 117; defeated Antiochus, 
119 ; death, 120. 

Scipio, P. Cornelius, iEmilianus (Africanus 
minor), captures Carthage, 121 ; takes 
Numantia, 123. 

Scipio, P. Nasica, 124. 

Scotland, geography, 36 ; Scots ravage 
Britain, 38, 176 ; war with Edward 1., 
264 ; contested succession, 264, 266 ; Scot- 
land independent after Bannockburn, 
268; capture of James, prince of Scot- 
land, 270 ; James IV. invades England, 
333 ; Flodden field, 334 ; Mary queen of 
Scots, 338, 339 ; James VI. succeeds in 
England as James I., 339 ; episcopacy in 
Scotland, 340 ; riot in Edinburgh, solemn 
league and covenant, 344 : bishops' war, 
345 ; Scotch invade England, 348 ; Mon- 
trose in Scotland, 348 ; Charles surren- 
ders to Scotch , 349 ; secret treaty with, 
350 ; Cromwell in Scotland, 375 ; perse- 
cution of covenanters, 382 ; William and 
Mary receive the crown, 386 ; union with 
England, 434. 

Scroop, archb. of York, 270. 

Scurcola, battle of, 226. 

Scutage, introduction of, 231. 

Scythians, invade Media, 15, 25 ; India, 24 ; 
attacked by Darius without success, 28. 

Sebastian, k. of Portugal, 332. 

Sebastopol, siege of, 500. 

Secessio plebis, 96, 98, 107. 

Secession of the Southern States in North 
America, 558. 

Sedan, battle of, 517. 

Sedgemoor, battle of, 383. 

Seisachtheia, 52. 

Sejanus, 149. 

Sekigahara, battle of, 356. 

Seleucidae, conquer the Jews, 11 ; over the 
Phoenicians, 20 ; kings of Syria, 77 ; con- 
quered by Rome, 120, 153. 

Seleucus, 76. 

Self-denying ordinance, 349. 

Selim II., sultan of Turkey, 306 ; III., 473. 

Seminole war, 552. 

Semiramis, 14, 16. See Sammuramit. 

Semitic peoples, religion of, 12. 

Sempach, battle of, 250. 

Sempronius Longus, T., 114. 

Sena gallica, battle of, 117. 

Senate, French, under the 4th constitu- 
tion, 461 ; receives greater power, 464 ; 
under Louis Napoleon, 531 ; constitution 
of 1875, 533. 

Senate, Roman, origin, 87 ; enlargement, 
89 ; in the monarchical constitution, 91 ; 
under the republican constitution, 94 ; 
growing importance, 102 ; conflict with 
the Gracchi, 124 ; loses the jury duty, 
125 ; the reforms of Sulla give the S. a 



temporary representative character, 132 ; 
power of revision restored to censors, 
133 ; reduced to a council under Caesar, 
143 ; receives the power of appointing offi- 
cials, 149. 

Senate in the United States, 433 

Seneca, 150. 

Senlac. See Hastings. 

Sennacherib, 10, 15. 

Senones, 34, 35, 107. 

Sentinum, battle of, 106. 

Sepoy mutiny, 546. 

September laws in France, 529. 

Septennial parliament, 437. 

Septimania, 174, 201. 

Septimius Severus, Roman emp., 154. 

Serfdom, 166 ; abolished by Joseph II., 
407 ; by Alexander 11., 500. 

Sertorius, Q., 130, 133. 

Servia, 521, 523; independent, 524; king- 
dom, 526. 

Servian constitution, 91. 

Servile wars, I., 123 ; II., 128 ; III., 133. 

Servilius, P., consul, 134, 141. 

Servilius Ahala, C, 99. 

Servius Tullius, 89. 

Sesonchis. See Shashang I. 

Sesostris, 5. 

Setil.,k. of Egypt, 5. 

Seven years' war, 403 ; in America, 420 ; in 
India, 443 ; participation of Spain, 414. 

Severus Alexander, Roman emp., 154. 

Seville, treaty of, 437. 

Seward, William H., 556. 

Sextius Lateranus, L., 100, 101. 

Seydlitz, 404, 405. 

Seymour, lord, execution of, 336. 

Sforza, Francesco, becomes d. of Milan 
262, 302, 303, 304. 

Shabak, 6. 

Shaftesbury, lord chan., 380, 381, 382. 

Shah Alam II., emp. of India, 442, 444 ; 
Jahan, emp. of India, reign of, 354. 

Shahnameh, Persian epic, refers to old Bao- 
trian empire, 25, 191. 

Shahr-Barz, Persian general, 191, 192. 

Shakespeare, 339. 

Shalmaneser, ks. of Assyria, II., 14 ; IV, 
10, 14. 

Shang, mythical dynasty in China, 31. 

Shanghai, 31, 501 ; opened to British trade, 
561. 

Sharpe, archb., murdered, 381. 

Shashang I., k. of Egypt, 5, 10. 

Shays 's rebellion, 433. 

Sheeah, 182. 

Shelburne, lord, administration, 431, 441 , 
sec. of state, 440. 

Shenandoah valley, 558. 

Shepherd kings in Egypt, 5 

Sher AH, death of, 547. 

Sheridan, general. Opequan, 558 ; rive 
Forks, 559. 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 441. 

Sheriffmuir, battle of, 437. 

Sherman, gen., campaign against John- 
ston, 558 ; march through Georgia, 558 ; 
received the surrender of the last confed- 
erate army, 559. 

Shiloh, battle of, 557. 

Shimonoseki batteries destroyed, 563. 

Shinto religion, 32, 33 ; reestablished, 564 



646 



Index. 



Shipka pass, 522. 

Ship-money, writs for, 344. 

Shisak. See Shashang I. 

Shoguns, Japanese mayors of the palace, 
rise of, 213 ; Yoritomo, 243 ; Ashikaga 
shoguns, 278, 355 ; Tokugawa shoguns, 
356, 445 ; overthrow of the shogun, 563. 

Shore, sir John, gov. -gen. in India, 541. 

" Short " parliament, 345. 

Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 434. 

Shrewsbury, battle of, 270. 

Shrewsbury, e. of. See Talbot. 

Shrewsbury, e. of, 384 ; secretary of state, 
385; resignation, 387; last lord high 
treas., 435, 436. 

Sicilian vespers, 226. 

Sicily, Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; wars of 
Carthaginians and Greeks in, 20 ; Messe- 
nians settle in, 51 ; Syracusan expedition 
of the Athenians, 67 ; geographical de- 
scription, 83 ; collision between Rome 
and Carthage, 110 ; ceded to Rome, west- 
ern S. the first Roman province, 111 ; 
war in Sicily, 116 ; subjugated, 117 ; re- 
volt of slaves in, 123, 128 ; war with Sex- 
tus Pompeius in, 146. 

Sicily, kingdom of, Roger II. assumes 
title of k. of the Two S., 218 ; Constance, 
heiress of the kingdom, wife of the 
emp. Henry VI., 222 ; war with Tancred, 
223 ; Frederic II., 223 ; Manfred, 225 ; 
Charles of Anjou receives kingdom 
from the pope, '226 ; Sicilian vespers, 
French driven from S., which falls to 
Peter of Aragon, 226 (.see Naples) ; S. 
united with Aragon, 263 ; given as 
kingdom to Savoy, 393 ; seized by Spain, 
but abandoned, and, by Savoy, exchanged 
with Austria for Sardinia, 397 ; after the 
war of the Polish succession ceded by 
Austria to Spain, with Naples, 398 ; S. 
and Naples (as kingdom of the Two Sici- 
lies) given to Ferdinand, 3d son of Charles 
III. of Spain, 416 ; deprived of Naples 
by Napoleon, the court retires to S., 468 ; 
dynasty restored, 483 ; revolt, 493 ; Gari- 
baldi liberates S. , 502. 

Sickingen, Franz von, 302. 

Sicyon, 40, 48 ; joins Achaean league, 72. 

Sidney, execution of, 382 ; Fir Philip, death 
of, 339. 

Sidon, chief town of the Sidonians, 16 ; 
greatest power, 17 ; superseded by Tyre, 
18 ; first city of Phoenicia under Persia, 
19 ; abandoned by crusaders, 217. 

iSievershausen, battle of, 306. 

Sieyes, 449, 461. 

Sigibert I., k. of the Franks, 181. 

Sigismund, emp. of the H. R. E., 251. 

Sigismund, k. of Hungary, 277. 

Sigismund III., k. of Poland, 352. 

Sigurd, k. of Norway, 238. 

Sigurd Ring, k. of Sweden, 207, 208. 

Sikhs, revolt, 442 ; two wars with the Brit- 
ish, 546. 

Silarus, battle of, 133. 

Silesia united with Bohemia, 248 ; claims 
of Prussia, 400 ; retained by Prussia, 
406. 

Silesian wars, I., 400 ; II.. 402 ; III., 404. 

Simon, J , 517 ; ministry, 534. 

Simon of Montfort, the elder, 227. 



Simon of Montfort, e. of Leicester, his pa*« 
liament, 234. 

Simony, 200. 

Sindhia, 443, 541. 

Sinope, battle of, 499. 

Sipylus, battle of, 119. 

Siraj-ud-Daula, 443. 

Sistova, peace of, 413. 

Sivaji, 389, 443. 

Siward, e. of Northumberland, 206. 

Six articles, 335. 

Sixtus V., pope, 327. 

Skaania, 236, 237, 238. 

Skobeleff, 523, 526. 

Skrzynecki, 490. 

Slavery abolished throughout the British 
empire, 540 ; partially abolished in 
Conn., 432 ; abolished in Massachusetts, 
431 ; in Pennsylvania, 431 ; in the United 
States, 433. 

Slave-trade abolished in British dominion, 
537; in the United States, 550. 

Slaves in Athens, 52; in Germany, 166, 
177. 

Slavonic congress in Prague, 493. 

Slavs, great monarchy of, 168 ; religion, 
169 ; regain their liberty, 173. 

Slawata, 309. 

Slidell, 544, 557. 

Sluys, battle of, 257. 

Smerdes. See Hirhor. 

Smith, John, in Virginia, 291, 292 ; explo- 
ration of coast of New England by, 294. 

Smolensk, 474, 475. 

Sobieski, John, k. of Poland, relieves Vi- 
enna, 372 ; in Poland, 374. 

Social democrats in Germany, 524. 

Socialistic commune, in France, 532. 

Socrates, 64, 69. 

Sogdianus, k. of Persia, 29. 

Soissons, battle of, 173, 181. 

Solemn league and covenant, in Sco^and, 
344 ; in England, 348. 

Solferino, battle of, 502. 

Soliman II., sultan of Turkey, besieged 
Vienna, 303 ; alliance with Francis I., 
304, 305 ; death, 306 ; reign, 353. 

Soliman Pasha, 522. 

Solis, Juan Diaz de, 284, 285. 

Solomon, k. of the Jews, 9. 

Solon, of Athens, visited Croesus of Lydia, 
21 ; constitution of, 52. 

Solway Moss, battle of, 335. 

Somers, lord keeper, 387 ; lord chan., 388; 
whig leader, 435. 

Somerset, execution of, 336. 

Sommering, 486. 

Soonees, 182. 

Soor, battle of, 402, 509. 

Sophia, princess of Hanover, 435. 

Sophia of Russia, 374. 

Sophocles, 64. 

Sophonisbe, 117. 

Soto, Ferdinando de, 287. 

Soult, marshal, on the Rhine, 467 ; in 
Spain, 471, 473, 479 ; in France, 481. 

Soult, ministry of, 530. 

South Sea bubble, 435, 437., 445. 

Southwold Bay, battle of, 380. - 

Spain, Phoenician settlements in, 17: Car. 
thaginian colonies in, 19 ; war with Car. 
thaginians in, 115 ; regarded as a Romas 



Index. 



647 



province, 118 ; invaded by Vandals, Suevi 
Alani, 171 ; West Gothic kingdom in, 
172, 174 ; Suevi and West Goths unite and 
are'converted, 175; conquered by Moors, 
183 ; fall of Cordova, rise of Christian 
kingdoms, 756-1035, 209 ; revolt of Por- 
tugal, union of Castile and Leon, 240 ; 
conquest of Granada, wars between Castile 
and Aragon, 276 ; union of Aragon and 
Castile, 328 ; discoveries in America, 
282 ; war with France, peace of the Pyre- 
nees, 366 ; war with England, 377 ; war 
of the Spanish succession, 390 ; partition 
treaties, 391; peace of Utrecht, 393; 
house of Bourbon, 414 ; Jesuits expelled, 
415 ; war with England in America. 419, 
437,' 438 ; Florida ceded to England, 423, 
439; war with England, 440 ; Florida re- 
stored to Spain, 432,441 ; France declares 
war against, 453 ; Bourbons displaced in 
favor of Joseph Bonaparte, 470 ; penin- 
sula war, 471,473 ; constitution of 18_12, 
ib. ; French driven from Spain, 479 ; 
Bourbons restored, 483; liberal rising, 
const, of 1812 restored, 487 ; French in- 
tervention, 488 ; revolt of the American 
colonies, 488 ; revolution of 1868, 512 ; S. 
a republic, 520 ; monarchy restored, 521 ; 
treaties with the United States, 548, 552. 
Spanish succession, 388 ; war of, 390. 
Sparta, founded, 48 ; constitution of Ly- 
curgus, 50 ; first hegemony, 56 ; Ther- 
mopylae, 58 ; Plataeas, 60 ; hegemony 
transferred to Athens, 61 ; war with 
Athens, 62 ; Peloponnesian war, 64 ; sec- 
ond hegemony, 69 ; loss of hegemony to 
Thebes, 70 ; war with the Achaean 
league, 79, 122 ; Nabis defeated by Ro- 
mans, 80. 
Spartacus, 133. 
Spectator, 436. . 

Speier, diet at, 224 ; imperial chamber at, 

300; diet of , 302 303. 
Spenser, Edmund, 339. 
Speyer. See Speier. 
Sphacteria, 66. 
Sphinx, 3, 46. 
Spicheren, battle of, 516. 
Spinola, 309, 310. 
Spitamas, 26. 
Spithead, mutiny at, 535. 
Spoils system, in U. S., 552. 
Spottsylvania, battle of, 558. 
Spurlus Cassius. 97. 
Stadtlohn, battle of, 310. 
Stahremberg, 372. 
Stamford, battle of, 274. 
Stamfordbridge, battle of, 206. 
Stamp act, passage of, 423, 440 ; repeal of, 

424, 440. 
Standard, battle of the, 230. 
Standish, Miles, 295. 
Stanislaus Lesczinski, k. of Poland, 39o ; 

abdicates, 398, 445. 
Stanislaus Poniatowski, k. of Poland, 411. 
Stanton, Edwin M., 556. 
Star chamber, 333 ; abolition of, 346. 
Stargard, truce of, 405. 
Stark, gen., 429. 

States General. See Etats Gen^raux. 
Statthaltership, in the Netherlands, 331. 
Steam, first attempt to utilize, 485 ; first 



steam-engine, 486 ; applied to navigation. 
486. 
Steele, sir Richard, 436. 
Steenkirke, battle of, 370, 387. , 

Stein, baron of, reorganizes Prussia, 471 ! . 
central administration, 478,479; at con- 
gress of Vienna, 482. 
Steinmetz, 514. 

Stenbock, Swedish general, 396. 
Stenkil, k. of Sweden, 208, 237. 
Stephen, archd. palatine, 494. 
Stephen of Blois, k. of England, 230. 
Stephen, St., k. of Hungary, 277. 
Stephen Bathory, elected k. of Poland, 

352. 
Stevenson, George, 486. 
Steward, office of, 195. 
Steyer, truce of, 462. 
Stilicho, 161, 171. 
Stillwater, battles of, 429. 
Stockach, battles of, 460, 462. 
Stockholm, massacre of, 352; treaty of, 

396, 437. 
Stony Point, storm of, 430. 
Strafford, earl of, sketch of life, 344 ; im- 
peachment, 345 ; execution, 346. 
Stralsund, peace of, 237, 249 ; siege of, 310 *, 

lost by Sweden, 396. 
Strassburg, remains to the empire, 316 ; 
seized by Louis XIV., 369; siege, 516, 
capitulation, 518 ; ceded to the German 
empire, 519 ; bi-lingual oath of, 186. 
Strategi, 55. 
Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria, 1N0 ; 

submits to England, 204. 
Stratton Hill, battle of, 347. 
Strelitzes, 374. 
Struensee, 409. 

Stuart, house of, succeeds in England, 
339; expelled, 375; restored, 37S; ex- 
pelled, 385. 
Stuart, Arabella, 340; imprisonment and 

death, 341. 
Stuyvesant, Peter, 357, 358. 
Suessula, battle of, 104. 
Suevi, location, 164, 170; invade Spain, 

171 ; unite with West Goths, 175. 
Suez Canal, 512, 545. 
Suffolk, d. of (Wm. de la Pole), impeach- 

ment, 271. 
Sugar act, passage of, 423. 
Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 226. 
Suleiman. See Soliman. 
Sulla, L. Cornelius, takes Jugurtha, 127 ; 
in the social war, 129 : war with Marius, 
130 ; war against Mithridates, 130 ; ap- 
pointed dictator in Rome, 132 ; abdicated, 
133 ; death, ib. 
Sully, d. of, 325, 340. 
Sulpicius Galba, P., 118 ; Rufus, 130. 
Sumir, 13. 

Sumter, Thomas, 430. 
Sunderland, (2d) e. of (Spencer), in cabinet, 
381 ; sec. of state, 382 ; becomes Catho- 
lic, 383; dismissed, 384; returned to 
parliament, 387 , lord chamberlain, 388 ; 
(3d) e. of, whig leader, 435 ; lord lieut. of 
Ireland, 436. 
Sung, kingdom of, 242. 
Surajah Dowlah. See Siraj-ud Daula 
Surat, English factory at, 353. 
Surinam, discovery of, 283. 



648 



Index, 



Surrey, earl of, executed, 336. 

Susiana in Persia, 24, 30 ; invaded bv 

Arabs, 192. 
Sutras, Hindu scriptures, 23. 
Suttee, abolition of, 541. 
Suvaroff , Turkish war, 413 ; storms Prague 
414 ; in Italy and Switzerland, 460, 461. 
Suy dynasty in China, 32. 
Svatopluk II. , k. of Moravia, 194. 
Svea, 208, 237. 

Svend, Forked Beard, k. of Denmark, 207 • 
in England (Swegen), 205 j Estridsen, k. 
of Denmark, 207. 
Sverre, k. of Norway, 238. 
Svold, battle of, 209. 

Swabia, duchy of, 194; revolt of duke 
Ernst, 198 ; Rudolf of, anti-king, 200 ; 
rise of Wurtemberg and Baden, 244 : 
league of cities, conflict with counts of 
Wurtemberg, 250. 
Swabian city league, 249. 
Swally, battle of, 354. 
Sweden, Svea and Gota, mythical history, 
208 ; Christianity introduced ; union of 
Calmar, 238 ; settlements in America, 298 ; 
in the thirty years' war (Gustavus Adol- 
phus), 311-314; at the peace of West- 
phalia acquires Pomerania, RUgen 
Wismar, Bremen, Werden, 316 ; house 
of Vasa, 352 ; house of Zweibriicken, 
3*3 ; war with Brandenburg, 374 ; Charles 
XII. 's war with Peter the Great, 394, 
376; loss of Bremen, Werden to Han- 
over; Stettin, Wollen, Usedom, Hither 
Pomerania to Prussia, 396 ; " Hats " 
and " Caps," 409 ; house of Holstein-Got- 
torp ; war with Russia, 409 ; joins third 
coalition against France, 467 ; forced ab- 
dication of Gustavus IV., 472; loss of 
Finland, 473 ; Bernadotte crown prince, 
473 ; alliance with Russia, promise of 
Norway, 474 ; alliance with England, 
476; peace with Denmark, loss of Pom- 
erania and Rugen, 479 ; at congress of 
"Vienna receives Norway, 483 ; which has 
to be subdued, 484. 
Swegen. See Svend. 
Swift, Jonathan, 436. 

Switzerland, 162 ; origin of the confeder- 
acy, 245 ; story of Tell, 246 ; war with 
Austria, 247; Berne joins the confed- 
eracy, 248; Sempach, 250; Armagnacs 
attack Basle, 253 ; practically indepen- 
dent, 300 ; reformation, Zwingli, 301 ; in- 
dependence acknowledged, 316 ; Berne 
takes the Waadtland from Savoy, 327 ; 
transformed into the Helvetian republic, 
460 ; restoration of the independent can- 
tons, 464; addition of Geneva, Wallis, 
and Neuchatol, 4S3 ; civil war, new con- 
stitution, 492; Neuchatel resigned by 
the king of Prussia, 501 ; rupture with 
the papacy, 520. 
Syagrinus, 173. 
Sybota, battle of, 65. 
Sylvester II., pope, 197 ; III., 199. 
Symington, 486. 
Syphax, 116, 118. 

Byracuse besieged by Carthaginians, 20; 
foundation of, 51 ; expedition of Athe- 
nians against, 67 ; war under Hiero ; war 
with Rome, 111 ; sack of, 116. 



Syria, Egyptian supremacy over, 4 ; lost 
byRamessu II., 5; wars of Psamethik 
in, b; subject to Assyria, 14 ; conquered 
by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; under the Seleu. 
cidaa, tl ; taken possession of by Ti° 
granes, 134 ; a Roman province, 136 ; 
subdued by Aurelian, 157. 

Szczekoziny, 414. 

Tabernacle, 8. 

Taborites, 252. 

Tacitus, Roman emp., 157. 

Tadmor, foundation of, 9. 

Tadoussac, 290. 

Taginac, battle of, 175. 

Tagliacozzo, battle of, 226. 

Taharak, k. of Egypt, 6. 

Tai-ping rebellion, 561. 

Taira family in Japan, 212, 213, 242. 

Talavera, battle of, 471. 

Talbot, e. of Shrewsbury, 272. 

Talikot, battle of, 354. 

Tallagio, de non concedendo 267. 

Talleyrand, 481, 482. 

Tamerlane, defeats Bajazet, 278, 353. 

Tanagra, battle of, 63. 

Tancred of Hauteville, 199, 214; of Lecce, 

Tang dynasty in China, 211. 

Tanneguy Duchatel, 259. 

Tannenberg, battle of, 277 

Taoism, in China, 31. 

Tarentum, 51 ; war with the Samnites. 
104 ; war with Rome, 107. 

Targowitz, confederacy of, 413. 

Tariff of abominations, 562. 

Tarik. 183. 

Tar le ton, 431. 

Tarpeian rock, 82. 

Tarquinius Priscus, 35, 89 ; Superbus, 89. 

Tarquins, expulsion of, 93 ; war with, 103. 

Tassilo, d. of Bavaria, revolt of, 185. 

Tasso, Torquato, 328. 

Tatars, Mongols, 240 ; Khitans in China 
241 ; Mongols in China, 242 ; Manchoos 
invade China, 355 ; become independent, 

Tatler, 436. 

Ta-tsing dynasty in China, 355. 

Tauroggen, treaty of, 475. 

Taylor, Zachary, 555. 

Tegethoff, 506, 510. 

Teja, k. of East Goths, 175. 

Telamon, battle of, 112. 

Telegraph invented, 486 ; first submarine, 
487 ; communication between Franca 
and England, 543; experimental line 
built by S. F. B. Morse, 554 ; communi- 
cation between U. S. and Great Britain, 

Tel-el-Kebir, capture of, 546. 

Tell, William, 246. 

Temesvar, 372, 397, 495. 

Templars, 217. 

Temple, in Jerusalem, erection of, 9; da 

struction, reerection, 11. 
Temple, sir William, 382. 
Temuchin, 240. 

Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 548. 
Tenure of office bill, 559. 
Teplitz, alliance of, 477; conference at 

491. 



Index, 



649 



Terentilius Arsa, 97. 

Terreur blanche, 627. 

Territory N. W. of Ohio, 433. 

Terry, general, 559. 

Teschen, peace of, 407. 

Test act, 380 ; repealed, 539. 

Testri, battle of, 183. 

Tetricus, 157. 

Tetzel, Dominican monk, 801. 

Teuta, queen of the Illyrians, 112. 

Teutobod, king of Teutones, 127. 

Teutoburg forest. Roman legions annihi- 
lated in, 149, 167. 

Teutones, invade Italy, 127, 167. 

Teutonic knights, 217, 464. 

Teutons, 36 ; geography, 162 ; ethnology, 
163; religion, 164; civilization, 166; 
history, 167 ; migration of Teutonic 
tribes, 170 ; Teutonic monarchies in the 
Roman empire, 171 ; in Britain, 176. 

Tewksbury, battle of, 274. 

Texas, annexed to United States, and ad- 
mitted to the Union, 554. 

Thales, 21. 

Thankmar, 195. 

Thapsus, battle of, 142. 

Thebes, in Egypt, 2, 4. 

Thebes, in Boeotia, founded, 45 ; war of 
the Seven against, 46 ; subdued, 48 ; 
Thebans at Thermopylae, 59 ; allied with 
Sparta against Athens, 62, 65 ; war with 
Sparta, hegemony of, 70 ; destruction, 73. 

Themistocles, 57 ; rebuilds walls of Ath- 
ens, 61; death, 61. 

Theodelinde, 175. 

Theodora, 210. 

Theodore, archb. of Canterbury, 180. 

Theodore I. , k. of Corsica, 415. 

Theodoric the Great, k. of East Goths, 174. 

Theodoric I., k. of the Franks, 181. 

Theodoric I., k. of West Goths, 173. 

Theodosius, Roman emp., 161, 171. 

Theophano, wife of Otto II., 196, 197. 

Theramenes, 69. 

Thermidorians, 456. 

Thermopylae, battle of, 58, 119. 

Theron of Agrigentum, 20. 

Theseus, 45, 61. 

Thesprotians, 41. 

Thessalian migration, 47. 

Thessalonica, kingdom of, 216. 

Thessaly, 40, 79, 141, 523. 

Thevet, Andrd, 288. 

Thibet, Buddhism in, 23; conquered by 
Kang-he, 390. 

Thierry, k. of the Franks. See Theodoric. 

Thiers, fall of the ministry of, 491 ; in op- 
position, 512 ; head of the executive 
519; ministry, 529; fall, 530; president, 
533 ; resigns, ib. ; death, 534. 

Thirty-nine articles, 338. 
Thirty tyrants, 69, 157. 
Thirty years' war, 308. 
Thistlewood, executed, 538. 
Thomas, gen., 558. 
Thor, 164, 165. 

Thorn, peace of, first and second, 277. 
Thracia, 28, 150. 
Thrasybulus, 68, 69, 70. 
Three bishoprics (Toul, Metz, Verdun), 
taken by France, 306, 821; ceded to 
France, 316 ; taken by Germany, 518. 



Three kingdoms in China, 32. 
Throgmorton, Spanish plot of, 339. 
Thucydides (son of MelasiasJ, 64. 
Thucydides (the historian), 64; banish* 

ment, 66. 
Thugs, suppression of the, 541. 
Thuringia, kingdom of, conquered by The- 
odoric I. , 181 ; landgraves become ex- 
tinct, territory divided, 225. 
Thusnelda, 149. 
Thutmes III., k. of Egypt, 4. 
Thyrea, battle of, 56. 
Tiberias, battle of, 215. 
Tiberius, Roman emp. , 149 ; adopted by Au- 
gustus, 148; subjugated Pannonia, 149. 
Tibullus, Albius, 148. 
Ticinus, battle of, 114. 
Ticonderoga, fortification of, 421 ; captured 
by Ethan Allen, 427 ; by Burgoyne, 428. 
Tien-Tsin, treaty of, 501, 502, 543, 561, 

562. 
Tifata, battle of, 131. 
Tiglath-Adar, k. of Assyria, 14. 
Tiglath-Pileser, ks. of Assyria, I., II., 14.. 
Tigranes, k. of Armenia, 30, 134, 135. 
Tigranocerta, battle of, 135. 
Tillotson, archb. of Canterbury, 387. 
Tilly, White Hill, 309; in Holstein, 310; 

Magdeburg, 311 ; death, 312. 
Tilsit, peace of, 469, 537. 
Timoleon, 20. 

Tin not brought from England by Phoeni- 
cians, 17, n. 
Tinchebrai, battle of, 230. 
Tingitana, 150. 
Tippamuir, battle of, 348. 
Tipu sultan, 442, 444, 541. 
Tirhakah. See Taharak. 
Tiridates, k. of Armenia, 150, 188. 
Tiridates, k. of Parthia, 29. 
Tissaphernes, 67, 70. 
Titian, 328. 

Titus, Roman emp., 151, 152 ; destroys Jo. 
rusalem, 12. 

Togrul Beg, 210. 
Tokio. See Yedo. 

Tokoly, count, 372. 

Tokugawa Iyeyasu, 355. 

Tokugawa shoguns, 356. 

Tolbiacum, 173. 

Tolentino, battle of, 484 ; peace of, 458. 

Toleration act, 386. 

Tolly, Barclay de, 472, 474. 

Tolosa, kingdom of, 172 ; battle of, 240. 

Tdnningen, surrender of, 396. 

Tonquin, annexed to China, 278 ; dispute 
with the French over, 562. 

Tooran-shah, 217. 

Torbay, 384. 

Torgau, alliance of, 302 ; battle of, 405. 

Tories, origin of the name, 382. 

Torres Vedras, lines of, 473, 537. 

Torstenson, 314, 315. 

Tostig, 206. 

Totila, k. of East Goths, 174, 176. 

Totleben, 405, 500. 

Toul. See Three bishoprics. 

Toulouse, battle of, 481. 

Tours, battle of, 183. 

Tourville, 370, 387. 

Tower of Babel, 12. 

Townshend, 436, 440. 



650 



Index. 



Towton, battle of, 274. 

Trafalgar, battle of, 467. 

Traitorous correspondence bill, 535. 

Trajan, Roman emp. ; Parthian exp. 30 ; 
reign, 152, 153. 

Transubstantiation , 269. 

Transylvania, 309, 315, 416, 511. 

Trasi menus, battle of lake, 114. 

Trautenau, battle of, 509. 

Travendal, peace of, 394. 

Treason, statute of, 269. 

Trebia, battle of the, 114, 461. 

Trebizond, Greek empire of, 216. 

Trelawney, b., 384. 

Trent, affair of the, 557. 

Trent, council of, 305. 

Trenton, battle of, 428. 

Trevelyan, G. O., sec. for Ireland, 546. 

Treves. See Trier. 

Trevithick, 486. 

Trevor, sir John, 388. 

Trial of the bishops under James II., 384. 

Tribes of Israel, 8. 

Tribunes, appointment, 96, 97 ; military 
tribunes created, 99 ; abolished, 101 ; 
lose their revolutionary character, 102 ; 
their power limited by Sulla, 132 ; re- 
stored, 133 ; conferred upon Caesar, 143. 

Tribur, imperial diet at, 199, 200. 

Tribus, 92. 

Triennial act, 345, 388. 

Trier, archb. of, 248. 

Trierarchy, 58. 

Trifanum, battle at, 104. 

Trifels, 216. 

Triple alliance between England, Holland, 
and Sweden, 367, 380 ; between England, 
France, and Holland, 437. 

Tripolitan war, 549. 

Triumvirate, first, 137 ; second, 145. 

Trochu, 517, 518, 519. 

Trojan war, 47. 

Troppau, congress at, 487. 

Troyes, peace of, 259, 271, 338. 

Truce of God, 199, 203. 

Tschesme, battle of, 412. 

Tseng, marquis, 562. 

Tshernajeff, 521. 

Tsin dynasty in China, 32 ; later Tsin, 211. 

Tuathal, 39. 

Tudor, house of, 333. 

Tughlak, sultan of Delhi, 241. 

Tuileries, storm of the, 452 ; burnt, 533. 

Tullus Hostilius, 89. 

Tunes, battle of, 111. 

Tunis, Louis IX. at, 217 ; expedition of 
Charles V. against, 304 ; French expe- 
dition to, 534. 

Turco-Russian war in Europe, 522 ; in 
Asia, 523. 

Turenne, marshal, 315, 366 ; death, 368. 

Turgot, 447. 

Turin, peace of, 371 ; battle of, 392, 434. 

Turks, Turkey, empire of the Seljuk T., 
210 ; supremacy of the Osman or Otto- 
man T., 278 ; war with Charles V., 303 ; 
alliance with Francis I., 305 ; war with 
Max. II., 306 ; with Venice (Lepanto), 
326 ; highest development of the em- 
pire, decline, 353 ; wars with Leopold I. 
(siege of Vienna), 372; peace of Carlo- 
witz, T. reoeives Temesvar, loses Morea 



to Venice, Hungary and Transylvania to 
Austria, 372, 416 , Azoff lost to Russia, 
375; Charles XII. in T., 395; Azoff re- 
gained, 396 ; conquest of Morea, war 
with Austria, peace of Passarowitz, Aus- 
tria receives Temesvar, Little Wallachia, 
Belgrade, part of Servia, 397 ; war with 
Poland and Russia, regains Belgrade, 
Servia, Little Wallachia, 398 ; war with 
Russia and Austria, 408, 410 ; Azoff finally 
lost, 410 ; with Catharine II. (1), peace of 
Kutschouc Kainardji, Bug the boun- 
dary, 412 ; (2) peace of Jassy, Dniester 
the boundary, 413; war with Russia, 
peace of Bucharest, Pruth the boun- 
dary, 473 ; revolt of Greece, 488 ; mas- 
sacre of Janizaries, Navarino, 489 ; war 
with Russia, peace of Adrianople, 489.; 
Crimean war, 499 ; peace of Paris, 501 ; 
revolt of Herzegovina, etc., " Bulgarian 
atrocities," 521; war with Russia, 522: 
peace of San Stefano, 523 ; congress of 
Berlin, 524 ; loss of much territory, 524; 
conference of Berlin, surrender of Dul- 
cigno, 525. 

Tuscany, Cosimo de Medici of Florence 
becomes grand duke of T., 327 ; Francis 
Stephen, of Lorraine, receives T., 398, 
416 ; becomes an appanage of Austria, 
416 ; grand duke expelled, 461 ; ceded to 
Parma, as kingdom of Etruria, 463 ; old 
dynasty restored, 483 ; united with Sar- 
dinia, 502. 

Tuscaroras, 363, 417. 

Two Sicilies. See Naples, Sicily. 

Tycoon. See Shogun. 

Tyler, John, 554. 

Tyler, Wat, 269. 

Tyndale's translation of the Bible, 335. 

Tyndaris, battle off, 110. 

Tyrant, 49. 

Tyrconnel, 383, 387. 

Tyre, 16 ; subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; 
surpasses Sidon, 18 ; height of its pros- 
perity under Hiram, 18 ; decline, 19 ; be- 
sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 19 ; captured 
by Alexander, 20. 

Tyrol, acquired Carinthia, 244 ; given to 
Austria by Margaret Maultasch, 249 ; 
falls to archduke Maximilian, 253 ; in- 
vaded by Bavarians, 392 ; ceded to Ba- 
varia, 468 ; revolt of Tyrol under Hofer, 
471 ; revolt subdued, southern Tyrol an- 
nexed to Italy, 472 ; T. restored to Aus- 
tria, 482. 

Tyrone, e. of, rebellion, 339, 341. 

Ulf-Jarl, 207. 

Ulm, 250 ; truce of, 315 ; surrender of, 

467. 
Ulrica Eleanora, q. of Sweden, 396. 
Ulrich, d. of Wiirtemberg, victory of Swa* 

bian league over, 250. 
Ulrich, d. of Wiirtemberg, restored, 304. 
Umbria, 81, 83, 141. 
Umbro-Sabellian tribe, 86. 
" Unam Sanctam," 254. 
Union of Calmar, 237, 238, 240, 351, 
Union Generate, failure of, 534. 
Union, German, 498. 
Union, Protestant, 308, 309. 
Union Jack, 434 



Index. 



651 



fJnitcd colonies of New England, 298. 

United Irishmen, 536. 

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
land. 536. 

United Netherlands, republic of, 316. See 
Netherlands. 

United New Netherland company, 298. 

United Provinces. See Netherlands. 

United States of America, independence 
proclaimed, 428 ; articles of confedera- 
tion, 429 ; independence recognized and 
boundaries established, 432 ; first con- 
gress at New York, 547 ; first meets at 
Washington, 549 ; Jay's treaties, 548 ; 
Louisiana purchase, 549 ; war of 1812, 
551 ; Missouri compromise, 552 ; war with 
Mexico, 554 ; fugitive slave law, 548, 555 ; 
civil war, 557, prohibition of slavery, 
558 ; resumption, civil service reform, 
560. 

United States bank, 547 ; second, 551. 

Unstrut, battle of, 195, 199. 

Urana, Pedro de, 288. 

Urban II. , pope, 213. 

Urchan, 278. 

Uruguay, discovery of, 286 ; independent, 
488. 

Usurtasen, ks. of Egypt, I., II., III., 4. 

Utica, Phoenician colony, 17 ; battle, 141. 

Utraquists, 252. 

Utrecht, peace of, 393, 435 ; treaty of, 363; 
union of, 331. 

Uxbridge, treaty of, 349. 

Uzeda, d. of, 331. 

Vaca, Cabeca de, 286. 

Vadimonium lake, battle of, 105, 107. 

Valdivia, 287. 

Valens, Roman emp., 160. 

Valentinianus, I., Roman emp., 160; II., 

160; III., 161, 173. 
Valerianus, Roman emp., 156, 188. 
Valerius, laws of, 98. 
Valerius Corvus, M., 103, 104 ; Maximus, 

110 ; Poplicola, 93. 
Valley Forge, 429. 
Valmy, battle at, 452. 
Valois, house of, 257. 
Van Buren, Martin, 552, 553. 
Vandals, location, 170 ; invaded Spain, 171 ; 

kingdom in Africa, 172 ; power in Africa 

destroyed, 174. 
Vane, sir Henry, execution of, 379. 
Van Tromp, 376. 
Varahran I., k. of Persia, II.. III., 188; 

IV., V., 189 : VI., see Bahram. 
Varna, battle of, 278. 
Varro, C. Terentius, 115. 
Varus, Quintilius, 143, 149, 167. 
Vasa, house of, 352. 
Vassals, 166. 
Vatican council, 512. 
Vaucelles, truce of, 306. 
Vauchamps, battle of, 480. 
Vedas, 22, 23. 
Veii, war of Romulus with, 88; siege of, 

99. 
Velasquez, Diego, 284, 285. 
Venaissin, annexed to France, 452. 
Vendue, royalistic revolt in the, 453, 454 ; 

conclusion of the war, 457 ; new revolt 

repressed, ib. ^ 



Vendome, 392, 435. 

Vendome, column, 532. 

Venezuela, discovery of, 283 ; republic of, 
488. 

Venice founded by Italian fugitives, 173 ; 
shares in 4th crusade, 216 ; constitu- 
tion, 697-1454, 262 ; acquisition of Corfu 
and Cyprus, height of its power, ib.; 
league of Cambray, 300, 318 ; holy league, 
318 ; decline in power, loses Cyprus to 
the Turks, 326 ; at the peace of Carlo- 
witz receives Morea, 372 ; which it loses 
at the peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; these 
wars described, 415 ; V. seized by France, 
gov. overthrown, 459 ; ceded to Austria, 
except Ionian Islands, 459 ; at the con- 
gress of Vienna, Austria retains V. , which 
forms with Milan the Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom, 482 ; revolt and subjugation, 
494 ; ceded to Napoleon III. , 509 ; ceded 
to Italy, 510, and united with that king- 
dom, 511. 

Venus, 84. 

Vera Cruz, 285 ; surrender of, to gen. 
Scott, 554. 

Vercellse, battle of, 128. 

Vercingetorix, 139. 

Verden, ceded to Sweden, 316 ; conquered 
by Denmark and sold to Hanover, 396. 

Verdun, see the Three bishoprics ; treaty 
of, 187. 

Vere, Robert de, impeachment, 269. 

Vergennes, c. de, 447. 

Vergilius Maro, P., 81, 147. 

Vergniaud, 451, 452, 454. 

Vermont, organized, 429 ; admitted to 
Union, 547. 

Verona, congress of, 488. 

Veronese, Paul, 328. 

Verrazzano, Giovanni di, 286. 

Versailles, convention of, 519 ; prelimina- 
ries of peace at, 519 ; treaty of, 408 ; 
peace of, 432, 441. 

Verus, Lucius, 154. 

Vervins, treaty of, 324. 

Vesontio, battle of, 138. 

Vespasianus, Roman emp., 37, 150, 151. 

Vespucci, Amerigo, 283, 284. 

Vestal virgins, 85. 

Vesuvius, eruption of, 152 , battle of, 104, 
175. 

Vexin, 203. 

Via iEmilia, 118 ; Appia, construction of, 
105 ; Flaminia, construction of, 106, 113 ; 
Valeria, 106. 

Vicksburg, 558. 

Victor Amadeus, k. of Sardinia, 458. 

Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, returns to 
Turin, 482. 

Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, succeeds 
to the throne, 494 ; in Crimean war, 500 ; 
k. of Italy, 503 ; death, 524. 

Victoria, q. of Great Britain and Ireland, 
491 ; marriage, 542 ; empress of India, 
545, 547. 

Vienna, grand alliance of, 370. See Grand 
alliance. 

Vienna, alliance of, against Napoleon (1815), 
483 ; concordat of, 253 ; conference in, 
491 ; congress of, 482, 537 ; final act, 487 ; 
peace of (ending war of Polish succession), 
398 ; peace of between France and Aus- 



652 



Index. 



tria (1809), 472 : peace of, ending the war 
of Austria and Prussia with Denmark 
(1864), 506 ; peace of, between Austria 
and Italy (1866), 511 ; treaty of (1731), 
437 ; siege by the Turks, 303, 372 ; foun- 
dation of, 167 ; outbreak in, 492 ; second, 
499 ; third, 493. 

Vienne. See Dauphine". 

Vijayanagar, Hindu kingdom of, 241, 353; 
destruction, 354. 

Vilagos, capitulation of, 495. 

Villafafila, treaty of, 328. 

Villafranca, meeting at, 502. 

Villars, 366, 392, 393. 

Villegagnon, 288. 

Villehardouin, 216. 

Villele, ministry of, 527. 

Villeroi, 370, 392. 

Yinci, Leonardo da, 327. 

Yindelicia, 34, 148, 167. 

Vindex, 0. Julius, 151. 

Vinegar Hill, battle of, 536. 

Vinland (America), 209, 281. 

Vinoy, general, 532. 

Vio, cardinal de, 301. 

Vionville, battle of, 516. 

Virginia, 98. 

Virginia, named, 289; division of, 291; 
first general assembly in, 292 ; massacre 
of colonists in, 357 ; Bacon's rebellion, 
359 ; resolutions of the house of bur- 
gesses, 424 ; secedes, 556. 

Viriathus, 123. 

Visconti^John Galeazzo becomes duke of 
Milan, 251 ; extinction of the line, 262, 
318. 

Visigoths. See West Goths. 

Vitellius, Roman emp., 151. 

Vitiges, k. of East Goths, 174. 

Vittoria, battle of, 479, 537. 

Vladimir the Great, of Russia, 276. 

Vladislas III., of Poland, elected k., of 
Hungary, 278 ; IV., 352. 

Volabhis in India, 210. 

Volero, Publiiius, 9/. 

Vologeses, ks. of Parthia, III., war with 
M. Aurelius, 30 ; IV., loses northern 
Assyria, 30. 

Volscii, wars with Romans, 97, 98, 100, 
103 : receive citizenship without suf- 
frage, 104. 

Voltaire, 400, 448. 

Voltri, battle of, 462. 

Vortigern, 37, 38. 

Vossem, peace of, 367. 

Vote by ballot in England, 545. 

Vouilbi, battle of, 174. 

Vul-lush III. , see Ramannarari. 

Wachau, battle at, 478. 

Waddington, ministry of, in France, 534. 

Wadsworth, 362. 

Wagram, battle of, 472. 

Wahlstatt, battle of, 240, 477. 

Waiblingen. See Welfs. 

Wakefield, battle of, 272. 

VValcheren expedition, 471. 

Waldemar I., k. of Denmark, the Great, 

235; II., the Conqueror, 224, 235 ; III., 

237. 
Waldemar the False, 24S. 
Waldenses, 227. 



Wales, migration of Britons to, 172 ; con* 
quest by Edward I., 364; annexed to 
Eng., 364. 

Wales, pr. of, visits United States and Can- 
ada, 544 : India, 545. 

Walja, k. of the West Goths, 172. 

Wall of China, 32. 

Wallace, sir \V r m., 266. 

Wallenstein, Albert of, 310, 313. 

Waller, 347. 

Walpole, 434; administration 437; fall, 
438. 

Walsingham, 339. 

Walter the Penniless, 200, 213. 

Walter, Hubert, archb. of Canterbury, 233. 

Waltzeniuller, Martin, 283. 

Wandewash, battle of, 444. 

Warbeck, Perkin, 333. 

Warsaw, battle of, 373 : besieged by Prus- 
sians, 414 ; captured by Russians, 490. 

Warsaw, duchy of, created for the k. of 
Saxony, 470 ; West Galicia ceded to, 
472 ; a portion ceded to Prussia, 482 ; 
the rest, as kingdom of Poland, to Rus- 
sia, 483. 

Wartburg, Luther at the, 302 ; festival of 
the, 487. 

Wartenburg, battle of, 478. 

Warwick, e. of, impeachment, 270. 

Warwick, e. of (the King-maker), takes up 
arms, 272, 274. 

Warwick, e. of, grant in America, 296. 

Warwick, e. of, executed, 333. 

Washington city laid out, 547. 

Washington, treaty of, 545, 560. 

Washington, George, expedition to the forts 
on the Alleghany, 420 ; at Braddock's 
defeat, 421 ; in continental congress, 426: 
commander-in-chief, 427 ; war of inde- 
pendence, 427-431 ; resigned his commis- 
ission, 432 ; first pres. of U. S., 547 ; re- 
elected, 548 ; death, 549. 

Waterloo, battle of, 484, 538. 

Watt, James, 4S6. 

Wayne, 430, 547. 

Webster, Daniel, speech in reply to Hayne, 
553 ; U. S. sec. of state, 554, 555. 

Wedmore, treaty of, 204. 

Wehlau, treaty of, 373. 

Weinsberg, battle of, 219. 

Weissenburg, engagement at, 516. 

Welf, 186, 199; V., marries Matilda of 
Tuscany, 200. 

Welfs, contest with the Hohenstaufen 
(Waiblingen), 219, 224; genealogy of, 
220. 

Welfesholze, battle of, 201. 

Wellesley, sir Arthur, in India 541. See 
Wellington. 

Wellington, d. of, 537 ; sketch of life, pen- 
insula war, 471 ; in Portugal, 473 ; Vit- 
toria, 479 ; in France, 481 ; congress of 
Vienna, 4S2 ; Waterloo, 484 ; administra- 
tion, 539 ; for. sec, 540; death, 543. 

Welser, 286. 

Wenceslaus. See Wenzel. 

Wends, 168 ; wars with Henry I., 194 ; 
Otto I., 195; Otto II., 197; Teutonie 
knights, 218 ; subjugated by Waldemac 
235, 249. 

Wentworth, Thomas. See Strafford. 

Wenzel, emp. of U. R. E., 250. 



Index. 



Q53 



Werder, gen. von, 516, 519. 
Werelae, peace of, 409. 
Werth, 313, 314, 315. 

Wessex, founded, 178; growth of, 180; 
kings of, become kings of England, 203 ; 
Danes in, 204. 
West, Francis, 295. 

West Franks, separation from the East 
Franks, 187 ; Carolingian rulers, 201 ; 
develop into the French nation, 202. 
Western empire separated from the eastern 
empire, 16 ; fall of, 162, 173 ; revival by 
Charles the Great, 185 ; by Otto I., 196. 
West Goths, location, 170 ; enter the Roman 
empire, 171 ; found kingdom in Spain, 
172; under Theodoric, k. of the East 
Goths, 174 ; conquered by the Arabs, 183. 
Westminster assembly, 347. 
Westminster, treaty of, 380, 403. 
Weston, lord treasurer, 344. 
Westphalia, 184 ; kingdom of, formed, 470 ; 
fall of, 478 ; peace of, 315 ; conditions of 
the peace, 316, 317. 
West Point, 430. 

West Virginia admitted to the Union. 558. 
Wettin, house of, in Meissen, 218 ; receives 
electoral Saxony, 252 ; division of the 
line, 305. 
Wetzlar, imperial chamber at, 300. 
Wexford, massacre of, 375. 
Weymouth, George, 290. 
Wharton, Thomas, sec. of state, 387 ; in the 

whig junto, 435. 
Wheatstone, 487. 
Whigs, origin of the name, 382. 
Whiskey insurrection 548. 
White, John, gov., 289. 
White Hill, battle on, 309. 
White Plains, battle of, 428. 
Whitney, Eli, invented cotton gin, 548. 
Whittington, sir Richard, 271. 
Wiclif, doctrine as taught by Huss con- 
demned, 252 ; in England, 269. 
Widukind, 185. 
Wiesloch, battle of, 310. 
Wilderness, battle of the, 558. 
Wilkes, John, 439, 440. 
William I., the Conqueror, k. of England, 
Hastings, 206 ; reign, 229. See William 
duke of Normandy; II., the Red, reign 
of, 230. 5 

William and Mary sovereigns of England, 
370, 371 ; reign, 385 ; of Scotland, 386 ; 
wars with France, 370, 371 ; death of 
Mary, 388. See William, prince of Or- 
ange. 
William III., k. of England, reign alone, 
388, 389 ; war of Spanish succession, 390- 
394; death, 389, 392 ; IV., 489 ; reign, 
539 ; death, 491, 541. 
William I., emperor of Germany, election, 

519 ; attempted assassination, 524. 
William I. , k. of Holland, 489. 
William Longsword, d. of Normandy, 202. 
William, d. of Normandy's claim to the 
English succession, 200, 206 ; conquest 
of England, 206. See William I., k. of 
England. 
William I., of Orange, the Silent, 331. 
William of Orange, 367; marriage with 
Mary, 368, 381 ; becomes stadtholder, 
380 ; declaration to the people of Eng- 



land, 384. See William III., k. of Eng- 
land. 
William I., k. of Prussia, 503; coronation 
of, 504 ; commander of the army, 508, 
509,514. See William I.,emp. of Ger- 
many. 
William the Lion, k. of Scotland, 232. 
William II., k. of Sicily, 222. 
William and Mary college, 362. 
William and Mary, war of, 365. 
Williams, Roger, 297, 357. 
Wilmington, e. of, 438. 
Wilmot proviso, 555. 

Wimbledon, expedition against Cadiz. 342. 
Wimpfen, battle of, 310. 
Wimpffen, general, 517. 
Winchester, statute of, 267. 
Windischgratz, pr., 495. 
Winfrith. See Boniface. 
Winkelried, Arnold of, 250. 
Winthrop, John, 296. 
Winthrop, John, son of gov. W., founda- 

tion of Conn, colony by, 297. 
Winwaed, battle of, 180. 
Wisconsin, exploration of, 364; admitted 

to the Union, 555. 
Witt, de, 367, 383 ; commander, 379. 
Wittelsbach, house of, in Bavaria, 222; 
count palatine, 223 ; head of the union 
and the league both of this house, 308 ; 
Wilhelmian and Rudolfian line, 316; 
Bavarian succession, 406. 
Wittstock, battle of, 314. 
Wladimir. See Vladimir. 
Wocokon, island of, 289. 
Woden. See Odin. 
Wolfe, gen., 421, 422. 
Wollaston, 295. 
Wolseley, sir Garnet, 545, 546. 
Wolsey, Thomas, card., 334. 
Wolstenholme's Sound, 299. 
" Wonderful " parliament, 269. 
Worcester, battle of, 375. 
Worcester, e. of, conspiracy against Henrv 

IV., 270. 
Worcester, marquis of, 486. 
Worms, capital of the old kingdom of Bur- 
gundy, 170 ; concordat of, 201 ; diet of, 
302. 
Worth, battle of, 516. 
Wrangel, German commander, 494, 496 

505. 
Wrangel, Swedish commander, 315. 
Wrede, 480. 

Wren, sir Christopher, 379. 
Writs of assistance in Massachusetts, 422. 
Wurschen, battle of, 476. 
Wurtemberg, rise of the Swabian counts 
of, 244 ; contests with the league of Swa- 
bian cities, 249, 250 ; duke Ulrich forced 
to abdicate, 304 ; becomes an electorate, 
464 ; enriched by the mediatization of 
many imperial cities, 465; troops join 
Napoleon, 467 ; becomes a kingdom and 
acquires lands from Austria, 468; be- 
longs to the confederation of the Rhine^ 
468 ; joins the allies, 479 ; joins the 
North German confederation, 514. 
Wurzburg, diet at, 223 ; battle of, 458. 
Wusterhausen, treaty of, 398. 
Wyandots, 423. 
Wyat, sir Francis, gov. of S. Virginia, 292. 



654 



Index. 



Wyclif . See Wiclif. nnn 
Wykeham, William of, 269. 

X. Y. Z. affair, 549. • 

Xanthippus accuses Miltiades, 57; leads 

Athenian fleet, 60; father of Pericles, 

62. 
Xanthippus, the Spartan, 111. 
Xenophon, leads the Greek mercenaries 

under Cyrus the younger, 29, 69. 
Xeres de la Frontera, battle of, 183. 
Xerxes, ks. of Persia : I., war with Greece, 

28, 58-60 ; II., 29. 

Yakub Beg, 562. 

Yakub Khan, abdication of, 547. 

Yale college, founded, 363. 

Yamassees, Indian war, 417, 418. 

Yeardley, sir George, gov. gen. of S. Vir- 
ginia, 292. 

Yedo, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the shogim, 
356; name changed to Tokio, becomes 
capital of the mikado, 563. 

Ynglingar dynasty in Sweden, 208. 

Yokohama, 32 ; opened to trade, 563. 

York, James, duke of, grant of New 
Netherlands, 358; lord high admiral, 
378 ; professes Catholicism, 380 ; thrown 
out by the test act, 380 ; exclusion bill, 
381 ; succeeds as James II., k. of Eng- 
land, 383. 

York, gen., 474, 475, 478, 480. 

York, house of, in the wars of the roses, 

272. 
Yorktown, siege of, 431. 



Yoritomo, 242, 243. 
Ypsilanti, 488. 

Yucatan, discovery of, 284, 285. 
Yussuf , 209. 

Zama, battle of, 118. 

Zamasp, k. of Persia, 189. _ 

Zapolya, John, pr. of Transylvania, SOd 

Zcerneboh, 169. 

Zela, battle of, 135, 142. 

Zendavesta, 24, n. 

Zenger, arrest of, for libel, 419. 

Zeno, 64, 162. 

Zenobia, 157. 

Zenta, battle of, 372. 

Ziela. See Zela. 

Zipangu,32,n,282. 

Ziska, 252. 

Znaim, truce of, 472. 

Zollverein, founded, 491 ; first parliament, 
512. 

Zopyrus, 27. 

Zorndorf , battle of, 405. p 

Zoroaster, reforms the Iranic religion, 24 ; 
his religion restored, 187. 

Zriny, 306. 

Zul-fikar Khan, 442^ 

Zulpich, battle of, 173. 

Zulus, war of England with, 545. 

Ziirich, battle of, 461 ; peace of, 502. 

Zutphen, battle of, 339. 

Zweibriicken, house of, in Sweden, 342, 
373. 

Zwingli, 301. 



INDEX TO APPENDIX. 



Abbas II., khedive of Egypt, 567. 

Abdullahi, mahdi, 569. 

Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan, 
death, 598. 

Abu Klea, battle, 565. 

Abyssinia, and Italy, 567, 574, 580 ; British 
treaty, 572. 

Addi's Abeda, peace, 580. 

Adua, battle, 580. 

Afghanistan, frontier deliminated, 566 ; 
Chitral, 568 ; Habibullah, 598. 

Agrarian agitation, Germany, 580; Russia, 
584. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, insurrection, 592. 

Alaska boundary, 592, 594. 

Alexander, p. of Bulgaria, and East Ru- 
melia, 575 ; kidnapped, resigns, 575. 

Alexander III., tzar of Russia, consecrated, 
573 ; death, 579. 

Alexander, k. of Servia, 577 ; coup d'e"tat, 
578 ; liberal constitution, 584 ; assassi- 
nated, 585. 

Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, Paris mob, 573 ; 
death, 575 ; XIII., 575 ; accession, 585. 

Alsace-Lorraine, dictator paragraph abol- 
ished, 585. 

American Railroad Union strike, 589. 

Anam, French war, 573, 574. 

Anarchistic activity, 577, 578, 583, 593. 

Andre in ministry, 582, 585. 

Angra Pequena, German protectorate, 
574. 

Arbitration, Anglo-French treaty, 573 ; 
Hague conference, 583 ; French-Italian 
treaty, 585 ; Bering sea, 588 ; Venezuela 
boundary, 590 ; Anglo-American treaty, 
590. 

Armenian massacres, 579. 

Armies, increase in Continental, 575, 578 ; 
Swedish conscription, 584 ; increase in 
U. S., 592 ; general staff, 594. 

Ashantee expedition, 569. 

Assab, Italy occupies, 574. 

Associations law, French, 584, 585. 

Assuan dam, 572. 

Atbara, battle, 569. 

Ausgleich renewed, 582. 

Australia, constitution, 571. 

Australian ballot, 587. 

Austria, triple alliance, 573, 585 ; electoral 
reform, 580 ; language controversy', 582 ; 
Augleich renewed, 582 ; empress assassi- 
nated, 583. 

Baden-Powell, col., Mafeking, 571. 
Baker Pasha, 565. 

Balfour, A. J., sec. for Ireland, 566 ; of trea- 
sury, 568 ; premier, 572 ; and tariff, 572. 
Bank scandal in Italy, 578. 
Bankruptcy, uniform law, 591. 



Baring, Evelyn, in Egypt, 565. 

Barton, Edmund, 571. 

Bayard, T. F., sec. of state, 586. 

Beach, M. H., sec. for Ireland, 566 ; ex- 
chequer, 568. 

Bechuanaland, British, 566. 

Belgium, suffrage, 574, 578, 583, 584 ; so- 
cialistic demonstrations, 583, 584. 

Berber, 569. 

Bering sea, sealing controversy, 586, 588. 

Berthelot in ministry, 580. 

Bimetallism, international conference, 
578. See Silver. 

Bismarck, pr. von., and catholics, 574 ; 
colonial policy, 574 ; resigns, 577 ; 
death, 583. 

Blaine, J. G., republican nominee, 586; 
sec. of state, 587. 

Bodrikoff assassinated, 585. 

Bogolepoff assassinated, 584. 

Bonaparte, prince Napoleon, manifesto, 
573 ; death, 577. 

Botha, gen., S. African war, 571. 

Boulanger, in ministry, 575; agitation, 
575, 576 ; flight, 576 ; suicide, 577. 

Bourbon, house of, extinct, 573. 

Bourgeois ministry, 580. 

Boxer rising, 597. 

Bradlaugh in parliament, 566. 

Brisson ministry, 574, 582. 

British South Africa company, 567, 569. 

Brunei, protectorate, 567. 

Bryan, W. J., democratic nominee, 590, 
592. 

Bryce, James, in cabinet, 568. 

Bulgaria, Servian war, 575 ; Alexander re- 
signs, 575 ; Ferdinand, 576 ; Russian 
ascendency, 5S0. 

Buller, Redvers, S. African war, 570. 

Billow, c. von, German chancellor, 584. 

Burma, upper, annexed, 566 ; Anglo-Chi- 
nese agreements, 594, 595. 

Campbell Bannerman, H., sec. of war, 
568. 

Campos, premier of Spain, 575. 

Canada, Pacific railway, 566 ; Riel's rebel- 
lion, 566 ; tariff preferential, 569 ; fish- 
eries, 586 ; joint high commission, 591. 

Canals, Manchester, 568 ; Suez convention, 
576 ; Panama, 578, 594 ; Kiel, 579. 

Caprivi, v., German chancellor, 577, 579. 

Carlos, k. of Portugal, 577. 

Carnovas, premier of Spain, 575. 

Caroline Islands, Germany secures, 575, 
583. 

Casimir-Perier, pres. of France, 578 ; re- 
signs, 580. 

Caucasia, railway, 576. 

Cavaignac, in ministry, 580. 



656 



Index to Appendix. 



Cervera, admiral, 591. 

Chad, lake, control, 567, 578. 

Chamberlain, Joseph, in cabinet, resigns, 
liberal unionist, 566; colonial sec, 568 ; 
and Transvaal, 569 ; and colonial pre- 
miers, 569 ; in S. Africa, 572 ; tariff 
campaign, 572. 

Chambord, c. of, death, 573. 

Charleston earthquake, 586. 

Chile and U. S., 588. 

China, French war, 574, 575 ; and Japan 
in Corea, 594; floods and famine, 594 ; 
missionaries, 595 ; empress dowager, 
595, 597 ; Japanese war, 595 ; conces- 
sions, 596 ; territorial leases, 596, 597 ; 
reforms, 597; open-door policy, 597, 
598 ; Boxer rising, 597 ; commercial 
treaties, 598. 

Chinese exclusion act, 587, 589. 

Ching, pr., Boxer rising, 598. 

Chitral, 568. 

Cholera in Europe, 577. 

Chungking, treaty port, 595. 

Churchill, Randolph, in cabinet, 566. 

Clayton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 593. 

Cleveland, Grover, democratic nominee, 
586,588; pres. of U. S.,586, 589; tariff, 
586 ; and Hawaii, 589 ; silver purchase 
law, 589 ; bond issues, 589, 590 ; Vene- 
zuela, 590. 

Colenso, battle, 570. 

Colombia, canal treaty, 593. 

Colonies, German African, 574. 

Combes, in ministry, 580; premier, 585. 

Concordat, agitation against, 585. 

Congo, conference, 574 ; boundary, 579. 

Constans in ministry, 576. 

Constitution, French, revised, 574; Aus- 
tralian, 571 ; Japanese, 594. 

Contract laborers, U. S. law, 586. 

Coolie labor in S. Africa, 572. 

Copyright, international, 588. 

Corea, opened to trade, 594; China and 
Japan (1883), 594; (1894), 595 ; Russian 
intrigue, 594, 596 ; Japanese prestige, 
596 ; Russia and Japan, 596, 597, 599. 

Cretan revolt, 581. 

Crimes act, 566. 

Crispi, premier of Italy, 576; bank scan- 
dal, 578. 

Cronje, gen., S. African war, 570, 571. 

Cuba, rebellion, 590 ; Spanish- American 
war, 590 ; U. S. disclaims desire for, 
591 ; Spain relinquishes, 591; conditions 
of U. S. withdrawal, 592 ; independent 
government, 593 ; reciprocity with U. S., 
593. 

Curzon, lord, viceroy of India, 569. 

Dahomey, French protectorate, 578 ; bound- 
ary, 582. 

Danish West Indies, failure of purchase, 
.593. 

Danube, navigation, 573, 581. 

Delarey, gen., S. African war, 571. 

Delcasse" in ministry, 578, 582, 585. 

Department, of labor, 587, 594; of agricul- 
ture, 587 ; of commerce, 594. 

Deutsche Colonialverein, 574. 

De Wet, gen., S. African war, 571. 

Dewey, George, Manila bay, 591. 



Dongola, 569. 

Dreyfus affair, 579, 582. 

Dupuy, in ministry, 578; premier, 578, 582. 

East Rumelia, revolution, 575. 
Education, English acts, 567, 572 ; central 

board, 570 ; French laws, 575, 584. 
Edward VII., k. of Great Britain, 572. 
Egypt, foreign control, 565 ; Soudan, 565, 

569 ; Abbas II., 567 ; crisis, 568. 
Eiffel tower, 577. 
El Caney, battle, 591. 
Electoral vote, regulation, 586. 
Election laws, French, 575-577. See Suf- 



Elections, U.S. (1884), 586; 

(1892), 588 ; (1896), 590 ; (1900), 592. 

Emma, q. regent of Netherlands, 577. 

England, Egypt, 565, 568, 569 ; South 
African republic, 565, 568 ; Afghanistan, 
566, 568 ; Fashoda, 569 ; imperial post, 
570; Persian gulf, 570, 572; South 
African war, 570; Edward VII., 572; 
tariff agitation, 572 ; Thibet, 573, 598 ; 
Pamirs, 580 ; Venezuela-Guinea bound- 
ary, 590 ; Corea, 594, 596 ; China, 597, 
598 ; Japanese alliance, 598. 

Eritrea, beginning, 574 ; Abyssinian war, 
580. 

Ester hazy, Dreyfus affair, 582. 

Evicted tenants bill, 568. 

Exterritoriality, cessation in Japan, 596. 

Fallieres, premier, 573 ; in ministry, 576. 

Fashoda incident, 569. 

Faure, Felix, in ministry, 578 ; pres. of 
France, 580 ; death, 583. 

Ferdinand, cr. p. of Austria, 576. 

Ferdinand, p. of Bulgaria, 576 ; and Russia, 
580. 

Ferron in ministry, 575. 

Ferry, Jules, ministry, 573. 

Finland, Russification, 583-585 ; famine, 
584. 

Fisheries, controversy, 586; Bering sea, 
586, 588. 

Floquet, premier, 576. 

Flourens in ministry, 576. 

Force bill, 587. 

Formosa, French attack, 574 ; ceded to 
Japan, 596. 

France, Egypt, 565 ; Africa, 567, 578-580, 
582, 583; Fashoda, 569; Oman, 570; 
princes, 573, 575 ; Anam and China, 
5*73-575 ; constitution revised, 574 ; elec- 
tion laws, 575-577 ; Gr6vy, 575 ; Bou- 
langer affair, 575, 576; Sadi-Carnot, 
576 ; republicanism strengthened, 577, 
585; Russian friendship and alliance, 
577, 581, 582; and Papacy, 578, 585; 
Panama scandal, 578 ; Casimir-Perier, 
578 ; Dreyfus affair, 579, 582 ; Faure, 580; 
Loubet, 583 ; associations law, 584, 585 ; 
and catholics in east, 584 ; and Turkey, 
584 ; Siam, 595, 596, 599 ; interference 
in Chinese- Japanese treaty, 596; conces- 
sions in China, 596 ; Kwangchau, 597 ; 
and Anglo-Japanese alliance, 598. 

Frederick III., emp. of Germany, acces- 
sion, death, 576. 

French Congo, boundary, 578. 



Index to Appendix. 



657 



Freycinet, in ministry, 574, 576, 578, 582 ; 

premier, 575. 
Fuchau, French attack, 574. 

Gallifet in ministry, 582. 

Galveston tornado, 592. 

Gatacie, gen., Stormberg, 570. 

George, p. of Greece, gov.-gen. of Crete, 
581. 

German East Africa company, 574. 

German East Africa and West Africa, 
boundaries, 567. 

Germany, Africa, 567, 574, 578, 579, 582 ; 
and Canadian tariff, 569 ; triple alliance, 
573, 585 ; catholics, 573; Caroline islands, 
575, 583 ; army increased, 575, 578 ; 
Frederick III., 576 ; William II., 576 ; 
forced development, 577 ; naval increase, 
580 ; agrarian agitation, 580 ; socialism, 
580, 583 ; depression, 584 ; and Chinese- 
Japanese treaty, 596; Kiaochau, 596, 597; 
upholds integrity of China, 598. 

Giolitti, premier of Italy, 576 ; bank scan- 
dal, 578. 

Gladstone, W. E., 3d administration, 556 ; 
home rule, 566, 568 ; 4th administration, 
568; resigns, 568 ; death, 569. 

Gold reserve of U. S., 589, 590. 

Gold standard, Russia, 5S2 ; U. S., 592; 
Japan, 596. 

Gordon, Charles, at Khartum, killed, 565. 

Goschen, G. J., in cabinet, 566, 568. 

Goschen act, 567. 

Greece, coerced bv powers, 575 ; and 
Crete, 581 ; Turkish war, 581. 

Gresham, W. Q., sec. of state, 589. 

Grevy, Jules, re-elected pres. of France, 
575 ; resigns, 576. 

Guerin in ministry, 578. 

Habibullah, ameer of Afghanistan, 598. 

Hague peace conference, 583. 

Hauotaux in ministry, 578, 580. 

Harcourt, W. V., in cabinet, 566, 568. 

Harrison, Benjamin, republican nominee, 
586, 588 ; pres. of U. S., 587. 

Hawaii, attempted annexation, 588 ; an- 
nexed, territory, 591. 

Hay, John, sec. of state, 590 ; open-door 
policy, 597. 

Haymarket riot, 586. 

Heligoland ceded to Germany, 567. 

Hendricks, T. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 586. 

Henry, p. of Prussia, in China, 596. 

Henry, major, Dreyfus affair, 579, 582. 

Hicks Pasha, 565. 

Hobart, G. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 590. 

Hohenlohe, p. von, German chancellor, 
579. 

Home-rule bills, 566, 568. 

Homestead strike, 588. 

Hopetoun, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 
571. 

House of Representatives, quorum count- 
ing, 587. 

Humbert, k. of Italy, assassinated, 583. 

Hungary, anti-Semitism, 573 ; civil mar- 
riage, 578 ; recognizes Jewish faith, 
580; Ausgleich renewed, 582 ; language 
question, 585. 



Idaho admitted, 588. 

Iddesleigh, lord, foreign sec, 566. 

Income tax in U. S., 589, 590. 

India, Chitral, 568; plague, 569; Thibet 
mission, 573. 

Injunction, government by, 589. 

Insular cases, 593. 

Insurance, workmen's accident, 569, 574; 
illness, 573 ; old age, 577, 583 ; miners', 
578. 

Interstate commerce act, 586. 

Ireland, nationalists, 566, 567; home-rule 
bills, 566, 5G8 ; plan of campaign, 566 ; 
crimes act, 566 ; Parnell commission, 
567 ; land purchase acts, 567, 573 ; local 
government, 569; rent disturbances, 572. 

Ischia, earthquake, 574. 

Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, 565. 

Isthmian canal, French scandal, 578; Clay- 
ton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 593; act, 
593 ; abortive treaty with Colombia, 593 ; 
treaty with Panama, 594. 

Italy, Eritrea, 567, 574; triple alliance, 
573, 585 ; increase in army, 575 ; pre- 
miers, 576 ; bank scandal, 578 ; Abys- 
sinian war, 580; socialistic riots, 582, 
583 ; Victor Emmanuel III., 583 ; and 
New Orleans lynching, 588 ; Sammun 
Bay, 597. 

Ito, admiral, in Chinese war, 595. 

Jameson raid, 568. 

Japan, and China in Corea, 594, 595 ; con- 
stitution, 594 ; Chinese war, 595; tidal 
wave, 596 ; end of exterritoriality, 596 ; 
military expansion, 596 ; and Russia in 
Corea, 596, 597; English alliance, 598; 
Russian crisis, 599. 

Jews, anti-Semitism, 573, 577 ; Russian 
May laws, 577; recognized in Hungary, 
580 ; Kishinef riot, 585. 

John, k. of Abyssinia, 574. 

Johnstown flood, 587. 

Kamerun, German protectorate, 574 ; 
boundary, 578, 579. 

Ketteler, b. von, killed, 598. 

Khartum, captured by mahdi, 565; re- 
taken, 569; railway, 571. 

Kiaochau, Germany seizes, 596 : leased, 
597. 

Kiel canal, 579. 

Kimberley, siege, 570, 571. 

Kishinef, anti-Semitic riot, 585. 

Kitchener, lord, Soudan, 569 ; Fashoda, 
570; South African war, 570, 571. 

Klondike, gold discovered, 569. 

Knights of Labor, 586. 

Krakatua, mount, eruption, 594. 

Kruger, S. J. P., pres. of S. African repub- 
lic, and Uitlanders, 568 ; and England, 
569, 571. 

Kwangchau-wan, French lease, 597. 

Kwangsu, emp. of China, accession, 595 ; 
reforms, 597 ; virtual deposition, 597. 

Labor, unions as corporations, 572 ; inter- 
national conference, 577; strikes in Eu- 
rope, 577, 582, 584; strikes in U. S., 586, 
588, 589; IT. S. department, 587, 594; 
growth of unions, 587. See Insurance. 



658 



Index to Appendix. 



Ladysmith, siege, 570. 

Land purchase acts, Ireland, 567, 573. 

Lansdowne, lord, viceroy of India, 567 ; in 

cabinet, 568 ; and Persian gulf, 572. 
Larissa, Greeks evacuate, 581. 
Leo XIII., pope, jubilees, 576, 578, 585 ; 

death, 585. 
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Panama scandal, 

578. 
Li Hungchang, Japanese war, 595; Boxer 

rising, 598. 
Liberal unionists, 566. 
Liliuokalani, q. of Hawaii, 588. 
Lobengula, 568. 
Local government, England, 567, 568, 570 ; 

Ireland, 569. 
London, convention of 1884, 565 ; govern- 
ment, 567, 570. 
Loubet, Emile, premier, 578 ; pres. of 

France, 583. 
Luis, k. of Portugal, death, 577. 
Lynching, 587, 588. 

Maagersfontein, battle, 570. 

McCarthy, Justin, 567. 

Macedonian revolt, 584. 

McKinley, William, republican nominee, 
590,592; pres. of U. S., 590; war mes- 
sage, 591, 593 ; Philippine commission, 
592 ; assassinated, 593. 

Madagascar, French in, 567, 573, 575, 580. 

Maf eking, siege, 570, 571. 

Maine, U". S. S., blown up, 591. 

Manchester ship canal, 568. 

Manchuria, Japan invades, 595 ; railways, 
596, 597; Russia occupies, 598 ; Russian- 
Japanese crisis, 599. See Port Arthur. 

Manila, captured, 591; insurgents attack, 
592. 

Manila bay, battle, 591. 

Manning, gen., Somaliland, 572. 

Marchand, major, Fashoda, 570. 

Maria Christina, regent of Spain, 575. 

Massawa, Italy occupies, 574. 

Matabele war, 568. 

May laws, in Prussia relaxed, 574 ; in Rus- 
sia, 577. 

Meline ministry, 580. 

Menelek, k. of Abyssinia, Italian war, 580. 

Mercier, in ministry, 578 ; Dreyfus affair, 
579. 

Merritt, gen., in Philippines, 591. 

Merv, Russia annexes, 574. 

Methuen, lord, Maagersfontein, 570. 

Milan, k. of Servia, abdicates, 577. 

Miles, gen., in Porto Rico, 591. 

Milouna pass, battle, 581. 

Minto, lord, gov.-gen. of Canada, 569. 

Missionaries in China, 595-597. 

Moltke, von, resigns, 576 ; and establish- 
ment of empire, 576. 

Montana admitted, 587. 

Morley, John, sec. for Ireland, 566, 568. 

Morton, L. P., v.-pres. of U. S., 587. 

Muhammad Ahmad, mahdi, 565. 

Muscat, French attempt, 570. 

Muzaffar-ed-din, shah of Persia, 596. 

Nansen, farthest north, 580. 
Nasr-ed-din, shah of Persia, killed, 596. 
Natalie, q. of Servia, banished, 577. 



Navy, increase in Germany, 580 ; in U. S., 
586 ; in Japan, 596. 

Negroes, condition, 587; force bill, 587. 

Netherlands, Wilhelmina, 577 ; electoral 
reform, 580. 

New Guinea, protectorate, 565. 

New Orleans, Mafia lynching, 588. 

New York city, Greater, 590. 

New Zealand, old age pensions, 570. 

Nicholas II., tzar of Russia, 579, 580. 

Niger river, spheres of influence, 583. 

Nile valley, French-English conventions, 
570, 583 ; Assuan dam, 572. 

Nodzu, gen., in Chinese war, 595. 

Nogi, gen., in Chinese war, 595. 

North Borneo, protectorate, 567. 

North Dakota admitted, 587. 

Northcote, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 
573. 

Northcote, Stafford. See Iddesleigh. 

North pole exploration, 580. 

Norway, responsible ministry, 574 ; sep- 
arate consuls, 577 ; suffrage, 583. 

Oklahoma opened, 587. 

Olney, Richard, sec. of state, 589; doc- 
trine, 590. 

Omdurman, battle, 569. 

Open-door policy, 597. 

Orange Free State, war with England, 570 ; 
annexed, 571 ; colony, 571. 

Osman Digna, 569. 

Oyama, gen., in Chinese war, 595. 

Paardesburg, battle, 571. 

Pamirs deliminated, 580. 

Pan-American congress, 587. 

Panama revolt, 594. 

Panama canal. See Isthmian. 

Panic in U. S.,589. 

Papacy, and Germany, 573; Vatican li- 
brary opened, 574 ; and France, 578,585; 
Pius X., 585. 

Paris, c. of, death, 578. 

Paris expositions, 577, 583. 

Parish council act, 568. 

Parliament, English, reform act, 565 ; seats 
redistributed, 565; 23d imperial, 566; 
home-rule bills, 566, 568 ; 24th, 566 ; 25th, 
567 ; 26th, 568 ; 27th, 571. 

Parnell, C. S., commission, 567 ; death, 
567. 

Peking, Boxer rising, 597, 598. 

Pelee, mount, eruption, 585. 

Penjdeh, Russia occupies, 566. 

Pensions, old age, 570 ; U. S. military, 588. 
See Insurance. 

Persia, Muzaffar-ed-din, 596 ; Russian trade 
treaty, 598. 

Persian gulf, British control, 570, 572. 

Pescadores Islands, ceded to Japan, 596. 

Peter Karageorgevitch, k. of Servia, 585. 

Philippine Islands, ceded to U. S., 591 ; 
commission, 591 ; insurrection, 592 ; gov- 
ernment, 592, 593 ; purchase of friars' 
lands, 594. 

Picquart, col., Dreyfus affair, 582. 

Piengyang, battle, 595. 

Pigott, R., 567. 

Pius X., pope, 585. 

Plague in India, 569. 



Index to Appendix. 



659 



Plehve assassinated, 584. 

Poincare in ministry, 578, 580. 

Pondoland, soyereignty over, 568. 

Population, India, 567, 572 ; Great Britain 
and Ireland, 567, 572 ; France, 575, 577 
580,' 584 ; Germany, 575, 577, 580, 584 
Austria-Hungary, 577 ; Russia, 582 
Italy, 584 ; U. S., 587, 592. 

Port Arthur, Japanese capture, 595 ; pro- 
test against cession, 596 ; leased to Rus- 
sia, 597. 

Port Hamilton, English occupation, 594. 

Porto Rico, campaign, 591 ; ceded to U. S., 
591 ; government, 592. 

Portugal, Africa, 567 ; house of peers, 574 ; 
Carlos, 577. 

Post, imperial penny, 570 ; U. S. rural free 
delivery, 590. 

Prempeh, king, 569. 

Presbyterian church, dispute in Scotland, 
571. " ,, . 

Presiden* "' succession law, 586. 

Proport epresentation, Belgium, 583. 

Prussia, - i, 584. See Germany. 

Railroads, Canadian Pacific, 566 ; Cairo- 
Khartum, 571 ; Cape to Cairo, 572 ; 
French convention, 573 ; Transcaucasian, 
Calais-Constantinople, Hungarian zone 
tariff, 576 ; Swiss state ownership, 582; 
Transsiberian, 584, 596, 598 ; Asia Minor, 
584 ; Bagdad convention, 585 ; U. S. 
strikes, 586, 589; interstate commerce 
act, 586 ; first Chinese, 594 ; Chinese 
concessions, 596 ; Transmanchurian, 
596, 597 ; first Corean, 597. 

Recidivist law, French, 574. 

Reciprocity, U. S. provisions, 588-590 ; 
with Cuba, 593. See Tariff. 

Reform act, third, 565. 

Reichstag, German, elections, 574, 578, 
583 ; period, 576. 

Rhodes, Cecil, Jameson raid. 569; conti- 
nental telegraph, 570; at Kimberley, 
571 ; death, 572 ; scholarships, 572. 

Ribot, in ministry, 578 ; premier, 578, 580. 

Riel, Louis, rebellion, 566. 

Roberts, lord, S. African war, 570, 571. 

Rochefort and Boulanger, 576. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, v.-pres. of U. S., 
593 ; pres., 593. 

Rosebery, lord, foreign sec, 566, 568 ; 
premier, 568. 

Rouvier, premier, 575 ; in ministry, 576, 
585. 

Rudini, premier of Italy, 576, 580 ; bank 
scandal, 578. 

Rudolf, cr. p. of Austria, suicide, 576. 

Rural communication, development, 587 ; 
postal delivery, 590. 

Russia, Penjdeh, 566 ; Merv, 574 ; and Bul- 
garia, 575, 580; anti-Semitism, 577, 
585 ; forced development, 577 ; French 
friendship and alliance, 577, 581, 582 ; 
Nicholas II., 579; Pamirs, 580; gold 
standard, 582 ; Finland, 583-585 ; agita- 
tion, 584 ; Corea, 594, 596 ; interference 
in Chinese-Japanese treaty, 596 ; Port 
Arthur, 597 ; Manchuria, 598 ; Persia, 
598 ; Thibet, 598 ; and Anglo-Japanese 
alliance, 598 ; Japanese crisis, 599. 



Sadi-Carnot, in ministry, 574, 575 ; pres. of 

France, 576 ; assassinated, 578. 
Sagasta, premier of Spain, 575 ; and Cuba, 

Sahara, boundary, 583. 
Salisbury, lord, 1st administration, 566; 
2d, 566 ; 3d, 568 ; resigns, 572 ; death, 573. 
Sammun Bay, Italy demands, 597. 
Samoa, treaties, 587, 592. 
Sampson, admiral, Spanish war, 591. 
San Juan Hill, battle, 591. 
Santiago, Cuba, campaign, naval battle, 

Sarafof, Boris, 584. 

Sarakhs, Russia annexes, 574. 

Sarawak, protectorate, 567. 

Schnabele affair, 575. 

Scotland, church controversy, 571. 

Servia, Bulgarian war, 575 ; Alexander, 
577; coup d'etat, 578; liberal constitu- 
tion, 584 ; regicide, Peter, 585. 

Seymour, admiral, Boxer rising, 598. 

Shafter, gen., Santiago campaign, 591. 

Shimonoseki, treaty, 596. 

Siam, and France, 595, 599 ; Anglo-French 
agreement, 596. 

Siberia, railway, 584, 596. 

Sierra Leone hinterland, 568. 

Silver, purchase law, 588 ; repeal, 589 ; 
agitation for free, 589. 

Sipiagin assassinated, 584. 

Slivnitza, battle, 575. 

Socialism, activity in Europe, 577 ; gains 
in Germany, 578, 583 ; German bill 
against, 580 ; Italian riots, 582, 583 ; Bel- 
gium demonstration, 583. 

Somaliland expeditions, 572. 

Soudan expeditions, 565, 569. 

South African republic, convention of 
London, 565 ; Jameson raid, 568 ; Eng- 
lish suzerainty, 569 ; English war, 570 ; 
annexed, 571 ; colony, 571 ; Chamber- 
lain in, 572 ; coolie labor, 572. 

South African war, 570. 

South Dakota admitted, 587. 

Spain, earthquakes, 574; premiers, Al- 
fonso XIII., 575 ; Cuban insurrection, 
590 ; American war, 590. 

Spanish- American war, 590. 

Spion Kop, battle, 570. 

Stambouloff, Bulgarian leader, 575 ; mur- 
dered, 580. 

Stanley, lord, gov.-gen. of Canada, 567. 

Stevenson, A. E., v.-pres. of U. S., 589. 

Stormberg, battle, 570. 

Strikes. See Labor. 

Students' revolt, Russia, 584. 

Suez canal convention, 576. 

Suffrage, extension in Belgium, 574, 578, 
584 ; Netherlands reform, 580 ; Aus- 
trian, 580 ; Norwegian, 583. 

Sugar bounty, 573, 584. 

Sverdrup, Norway minister, 574. 

Sweden, conscription, 584 ; famine, 584. 

Switzerland, asylum for political offend- 
ers, 576 ; state railways, 582. 

Taff Vale case, 572. 

Taft, W. H., Philippine commission, 592. 

Talien-wan, 597. 

Tariff, Canadian preferential, 569 ; Cham- 



660 



Index to Appendix. 



berlain's campaign, 570 ; German, 574, 

578, 585; French, 577 ; Russo-German 

war, 578 ; U. S., 586, 588-590. 
Telegraph, Pacific cables, 572, 594 ; wire- 
less, 572 ; first Chinese, 594. 
Tennyson, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 

572. 
Tewfik, khedive of Egypt, 565; death, 

567. 
Theebaw, k. of Burma, 566. 
Thevenet in ministry, 576. 
Thibet, boundary, 567 ; British mission, 

573; an<T Russia, 598. 
Tientsin, treaty, 574 ; reduced, 598. 
Ting, admiral, in Japanese war, 595. 
Tirard, in ministry, 573 ; premier, 576. 
Togoland, German protectorate, 574; 

boundary, 582. 
Transvaal, colony, 571. See South African 

republic. 
Triple alliance, 573; renewed, 585. 
Trusts, development, 587 ; anti-trust law, 

588. 
Turkey, Armenian massacre, 579 ; Cretan 

revolt and Greek war, 581 ; Macedonian 

revolt, 584 ; and France, 584. 

Uganda protectorate, 568. 

United States, and coercion of Venezuela, 
585 ; fishery controversy, 586 ; Bering 
sea, 586, 588 ; world power, 587 ; Chile, 
588 ; panic and depression, 589 ; Vene- 
zuela-Guiana boundary, 590 ; Spanish 
war, 590 ; joint high commission, 591 ; 
insular cases, 593. See Elections. 

Utah admitted, 590. 



Vaal Krantz, battle, 570. 

Venezuela, coerced, 585; boundary dis- 
pute, 590. 

Victor Emmanuel III., k. of Italy, 583. 

Victoria, q. of England, jubilees, 566, 569 ; 
death, 572. 

Volos, Turks occupy, 581. 

Waldeck-Rousseau, in ministry, 573 ; pre- 
mier, 582. 

Washington admitted, 587. 

Weaver, J. B., populist nominee, 588. 

Weihaiwei, Japanese capture, 595 ; leased 
to England, 597. 

Weyler, capt.-gen. of Cuba, 590. 

White, George, Ladysmith, 570. 

Wilhelmina, q. of Netherlands, 577 ; ac- 
cession, 583. 

William, emp. of Germany, I,, death, 576; 
II., 576; in Holy Land, 583; mailed 
fist, 597. 

William III., k. of 
577. 

Wolseley, lord, in Sou 

Workmen. See Insui . 

World's Columbian ex ; 

Wyndham, George, mt 

Wyoming admitted, 588. 

Yalu river, battle^ 595. 
Yamagata, gen., in Chinese war, 595. 
Yi Hi, k. of Corea, and Russia, 596. 
Younghusband, F. E., Thibet mission, 
573. 

Zanzibar, protectorate, 567. 



;.i; T "A death, 
^?583. 

S9. 
U,i ju eland, 572. 



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